Reinventing Public Bus Transport in India: Challenges, Gaps, and Policy Pathways

Author: Ria Melanie

Executive Summary

Public bus transport in India serves as the backbone of urban and rural mobility, yet it is a system in critical need of a fundamental overhaul. With over 45% of daily urban commuters relying on buses, the system remains chronically under-resourced, poorly managed, and operationally inefficient. This neglect has created a significant barrier to equitable growth and sustainable development. Despite various policy efforts and financial investments, public bus networks have failed to keep pace with the demands of rapid urbanization, pressing environmental mandates, and widening socio-economic disparities.

This white paper analyzes the core challenges confronting India's bus transport system, assesses the limited impact of recent policies, and provides a comparative cost and feasibility analysis between Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) and electric buses. It presents a detailed statistical case study of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) to illustrate these systemic failures on a micro-level. Ultimately, this paper recommends a set of targeted, inclusive, and sustainable solutions to overhaul the sector. It highlights the urgent need for a re-evaluation of the current EV-centric policy, arguing that India must adopt a more pragmatic, diversified, and localized approach that immediately leverages CNG, biogas, and solar-powered alternatives to drive clean, affordable, and equitable mobility for all its citizens.

1. Introduction

India's urban population is projected to reach an unprecedented 600 million by 2031, a demographic shift that will place immense pressure on already strained urban infrastructure, especially public transport systems. Among the available options, buses offer the most economical, flexible, and scalable form of mass transport, capable of reaching every corner of a city. However, they remain a neglected priority in the policy hierarchy, often overshadowed by capital-intensive, high-visibility projects like metros and expressways. The consequences of this neglect are severe, contributing to economic losses from traffic congestion—estimated to cost major Indian cities billions of dollars annually—and hindering progress towards national development goals. A well-planned, efficient bus system is not merely a matter of convenient mobility; it is a fundamental pillar of social equity, a catalyst for inclusive economic growth, and a critical component of environmental sustainability and urban resilience.

2. Key Challenges in India's Bus Transport System

The public bus sector is beset by a multitude of deep-rooted, systemic issues that interact to hinder its effectiveness and growth, trapping it in a cycle of decline.

a) Poor Fleet Size and Aging Buses

• Inadequate Coverage: India has only 1.2 buses per 1,000 people, a figure that pales in comparison to the 6–8 buses per 1,000 people in many developed nations (UITP, 2021; MoHUA, 2020) and also lags behind peer nations like Brazil (5.3) and South Africa (4.7).

• Outdated Fleet: Over 30% of buses operated by State Transport Undertakings (STUs) are overaged, making them inefficient, highly polluting, prone to breakdowns, and unsafe for regular use (NITI Aayog, 2022).

• The "Missing Middle": There is a lack of fleet diversification. Most STUs rely on standard 12-meter buses, with a significant shortage of midi and mini buses that are better suited for feeder routes, narrow streets, and serving low-demand areas, thus failing to create a truly comprehensive network.
  

b) Limited Funding and Financial Instability

• Chronic Deficits: STUs operate with chronic financial deficits; many reported staggering losses exceeding ₹2,000 crore in the fiscal year 2022–23 (CAG, 2023). Most STUs have a farebox recovery ratio of less than 70%, meaning fares do not cover operational costs.

• Root Causes of Deficits: This financial distress is driven by politically suppressed fares, high staff-to-bus ratios, rising fuel costs, and the burden of providing concessional travel to various groups without adequate financial reimbursement from the state.

• Subsidy Gaps: Fare subsidies, while socially necessary, remain consistently underfunded, creating a vicious cycle of poor service quality, deteriorating infrastructure, and declining ridership, which further erodes revenue (World Bank, 2020).
  

c) Low Service Quality

• Unreliability and the Vicious Cycle: Irregular schedules, severe overcrowding, and unsafe travel conditions actively drive commuters toward private vehicles. This initiates a "vicious cycle of decline": low investment leads to poor service, which causes ridership and revenue to fall, leading to even lower investment.

• Connectivity Gaps: Poor last-mile connectivity and a lack of integration with other transit modes severely limit the role of buses as the backbone of an urban mobility network (MoHUA, 2019).

• Lack of Passenger Information: The absence of reliable, real-time Passenger Information Systems (PIS) at bus stops and on mobile apps creates uncertainty for passengers, making the service unattractive compared to app-based private options.
  

d) Urban Bias and Rural Neglect

• Uneven Development: Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities, along with vast rural areas, suffer from a severe shortage of public bus services, a phenomenon termed "transport poverty" (MoRTH, 2021).

• Widening Inequality: More than 50% of India’s rural population lacks access to reliable bus transport, a gap that deepens regional inequality and limits access to economic, educational, and healthcare opportunities (NSSO, 2019).
  

e) Flawed Policy Focus on Electric Buses

• Impractical Mandate: The current central government policy, which aggressively pushes for the deployment of electric buses, is proving to be economically and technologically impractical for mass adoption at the required scale and speed (NITI Aayog, 2022).

• Prohibitive Costs: EV buses cost nearly ₹2.25 crore per unit, whereas a CNG double-decker costs only about ₹30–40 lakh. This massive price difference makes widespread adoption fiscally unaffordable for most STUs (FAME II Report, MoHI, 2022).

• Infrastructural Hurdles: A mass transition requires a robust, nationwide charging infrastructure, which is currently non-existent. It also places immense strain on India's already fragile electricity grid, particularly during peak demand hours.

• Climate and Environmental Concerns: India's tropical climate is known to reduce EV battery efficiency and shorten its lifespan (TERI, 2020). Furthermore, the manufacturing and disposal of EV batteries—which relies heavily on mining rare earth minerals and raises concerns about geopolitical dependencies—pose serious environmental hazards, often resulting in a larger life-cycle carbon footprint than that of CNG buses (IEA, 2021).
  

• Global Context: It is noteworthy that even developed countries continue to rely largely on hybrid and advanced diesel/CNG fleets, with EV buses making up only a small fraction of their public transport systems as they navigate these complex challenges (UITP, 2021).
  

f) Institutional Fragmentation

• Lack of Coordination: Operations are overseen by multiple, often uncoordinated agencies (RTOs, Urban Local Bodies, STUs), creating significant operational inefficiencies and regulatory confusion (MoHUA, 2020). For instance, a route planned by an STU may lack supporting infrastructure like bus shelters, which falls under the purview of the local municipal body.

• Planning Deficiencies: The absence of empowered, Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities (UMTAs) in most cities prevents integrated, long-term planning and execution of multi-modal transport networks (World Bank, 2020).
  

g) Inadequate Infrastructure

• Outdated Facilities: Key infrastructure, including bus depots, terminals, and passenger stops, remains outdated, poorly maintained, and unsafe across the country (MoRTH, 2021).

• Lack of Amenities: Most bus shelters lack basic amenities like seating, real-time information displays, weather protection, and accessibility features for the disabled, making the waiting experience unpleasant and exclusionary.

• Technological Lag: Very few cities have invested in essential modern infrastructure like dedicated bus lanes or Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) to ensure punctuality and reliability (NITI Aayog, 2019).
  

3. Recent Policy Initiatives

Several government schemes have been launched to address these issues, but their impact has been limited due to flawed design and implementation.

• FAME Scheme: This initiative provided capital subsidies for electric vehicles but failed to create a framework for long-term operational sustainability. It ignored the high cost of battery replacement and charging infrastructure, leaving operators financially vulnerable.

• National Electric Bus Program (NEBP): The program proposed the deployment of 50,000 e-buses but has been criticized for primarily benefiting large, well-funded metro cities while overlooking the needs of smaller urban centers where mobility gaps are often wider.

• Urban Transport Fund (UTF): Designed to bridge critical financing gaps for urban transport projects, this fund remains largely underutilized due to complex application processes and a lack of capacity within smaller municipal bodies to develop eligible projects.

• PM e-Bus Seva Scheme: This recent scheme aims to deploy EV buses in 169 cities but has drawn criticism for its narrow, vehicle-centric focus, which overlooks the more pressing needs of network expansion, service quality improvement, and crucial rural connectivity.
  

4. Socio-Economic Impacts

The state of public bus transport has profound socio-economic consequences, particularly for vulnerable populations.

• Lifeline for the Working Class: Bus transport supports an estimated 80–90% of lower-middle and working-class commuters, making it an essential service for economic participation and livelihood.

• Deepening Inequality: Inadequate and unaffordable transport options deepen urban inequality and restrict access to employment, education, and healthcare, effectively trapping people in cycles of poverty.

• Gendered Impact: Women are disproportionately affected by poor bus services. Concerns over safety, overcrowding, and long wait times limit their mobility, restricting their access to education and better-paying jobs, a phenomenon detailed in reports by organizations like the World Bank.

• Exclusion of Vulnerable Groups: The elderly and disabled commuters face systemic neglect due to unsafe vehicle designs, a lack of accessible features like ramps and audio announcements, and poorly designed infrastructure.

• A Tool for Social Welfare: A robust bus system is therefore not just a mobility solution but a powerful tool for social welfare, gender equity, and the promotion of an inclusive society.
  

5. Environmental Impact

Modernizing the bus fleet with a pragmatic, clean fuel strategy is crucial for achieving India's climate goals.

• Potential for Emission Reduction: Shifting a significant portion of commuters from private vehicles to public buses could reduce urban transport-related emissions by 20–30%.

• Air Pollution Crisis: The continued reliance on outdated BS-III/IV diesel buses disproportionately contributes to severe urban air pollution and related public health crises.

• The Case for Biogas: An under-explored alternative is Biogas or Bio-CNG, produced from agricultural waste, municipal solid waste, and sugarcane press mud. This aligns perfectly with national initiatives like the SATAT (Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation) scheme, creating a circular economy, reducing landfill burden, and providing a locally sourced, clean fuel.

• Life-Cycle Footprint of EVs: The life-cycle carbon footprint of EV buses—encompassing battery production, resource mining, and disposal—is often greater than that of CNG buses, raising valid questions about their true long-term sustainability in the Indian context.
  

6. Cost Comparison: CNG vs. EV Buses

A direct cost comparison reveals the stark economic and operational disparities between CNG and electric buses.

Key Takeaways:

• Capital Cost: EV buses are 5–7 times costlier than their CNG counterparts, creating an insurmountable barrier to entry for most STUs.

• Operational Cost: While EV buses are slightly cheaper per kilometer in terms of fuel, this figure is misleading. It does not account for the high cost of charging infrastructure, battery replacement (which can be up to 40% of the vehicle's cost), and specialized maintenance.

• Operational Flexibility: The long charging time for EVs reduces their operational flexibility compared to CNG buses, which can be refueled quickly and put back into service, maximizing asset utilization.

• Feasibility: For the same investment required to purchase one EV bus, approximately seven CNG buses could be deployed, making CNG the far more practical and scalable choice for rapidly closing India's mobility gap.
  

7. Statistical Case Study: Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR)

The Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR), home to a population of nearly 26 million people, provides a compelling case study. Its challenges are emblematic of those faced by large urban agglomerations across India.

• Overcrowding and Demand-Supply Gap: With only approximately 7,000 buses in service, the fleet is far below the global standard for a megacity of its size. This gap leads to severe overcrowding, long wait times, and unreliable services, pushing people towards less efficient modes of transport.

• Aging Fleet: A significant portion of the region's bus fleet is over 10 years old, which increases the frequency of breakdowns, raises maintenance costs, and reduces overall efficiency.

• Financial Deficits: Operators like BEST continue to suffer substantial financial losses due to mandated fare controls, underfunded subsidies, and persistent operational inefficiencies.

• Traffic Congestion: The lack of dedicated, enforced bus lanes means that buses are often stuck in the same traffic as private vehicles, which drastically reduces their speed, reliability, and appeal to commuters.

• Integration Challenges: There is limited integration between bus services and other transport modes like the suburban rail, metro systems, and coastal ferry services. This creates friction for commuters and prevents the realization of a seamless, multi-modal transport network.
  

Considering the global benchmark of 60 buses per 100,000 population, the MMR requires a fleet of approximately 15,600 buses to provide adequate service.

• Existing Fleet: ~7,000 buses.

• Fleet Shortfall: Nearly 8,600 buses.
  

The cost implications of addressing this shortfall, as outlined in the Mumbai Climate Action Plan, are stark:

• CNG Solution: To fill the gap with CNG buses (at ₹40 lakh each), an investment of ₹3,440 crore would be required.

• EV Solution: To fill the gap with EV buses (at ₹2.25 crore each), an investment of ₹19,350 crore would be required.
  

This dramatic contrast highlights that a full EV transition for even a single, relatively wealthy metropolitan region like Mumbai is economically unfeasible in the current climate. Scaling up CNG or hybrid alternatives is a far more achievable and sustainable path forward.

8. Public Transport Usage in Urban India

Data consistently shows that buses are the primary mode of public transport for the vast majority of Indians. In most cities, buses account for a higher modal share than metros and suburban rail combined, especially when considering trips made by lower-income households. For millions, the bus is not a choice, but the only available and affordable option. This reality underscores the immense social responsibility to invest in and improve this critical service.

9. Recommendations

To build a modern, equitable, and sustainable bus transport system, a multi-pronged, mission-mode approach is required.

a) Prioritize Buses Over Cars in Urban Planning

• Build dedicated Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) corridors with exclusive, signal-prioritized lanes.

• Mandate high-frequency services, ensuring buses arrive every 3-5 minutes during peak hours on major routes.

• Create strong financial and spatial disincentives for private car use, such as congestion pricing and higher parking fees in city centers.
  

b) Reform STU Governance and Operations

• Introduce performance-linked funding models for STUs and mandate the digitization of operations for transparency and efficiency.

• Establish and empower Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities (UMTAs) in all major cities to enable integrated, multi-modal transport planning and regulation.

• Adopt Data-Driven Planning: Utilize Big Data, AI, and GPS analytics for dynamic route rationalization, demand forecasting, and real-time performance management to optimize service delivery.
  

c) Diversify Bus Financing

• Attract private sector participation and investment through well-structured Public-Private Partnership (PPP) models for operations, maintenance, and infrastructure development.

• Actively leverage innovative financing mechanisms like climate finance, carbon credits, and green bonds. Explore Land Value Capture to fund transport infrastructure by tapping into the increased property values it generates.
  

d) Invest in Tier-2, Tier-3 Cities, and Rural Connectivity

• Expand the scope of central government schemes to specifically target underserved areas with a focus on network expansion, not just vehicle replacement.

• Promote hybrid solutions tailored to local needs, such as deploying CNG and biogas fleets with a clear roadmap for gradual EV adoption as technology matures and costs decline.
  

e) Enhance Accessibility and Inclusion

• Implement gender-sensitive designs with designated seating, comprehensive CCTV surveillance, and universal accessibility standards (e.g., low floors, ramps, audio-visual announcements) for all new buses and bus stops.

• Utilize AI-driven scheduling and real-time tracking to improve reliability and enable better last-mile integration with other services.
  

f) Launch a National Bus Modernization Mission

• Define clear Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) for fleet expansion, emissions reduction, service quality improvements, and financial sustainability.

• Create a framework to integrate informal transport operators (like minibuses and shared autos) under a formal regulatory structure to improve safety, service standards, and data collection.

• Invest in Skill Development: Launch a national program for capacity building within STUs, training staff in modern planning techniques, data analytics, EV maintenance, and customer service.
  

10. Conclusion: A Call for a Pragmatic, Multi-Fuel Strategy

Public bus transport in India stands at a critical crossroads. It is not just another mobility option—it is the essential lifeline for millions of citizens, particularly the working class, students, women, and marginalized communities. Despite its foundational role in the nation's economy and social fabric, the sector has long been underfunded, technologically outdated, and institutionally fragmented. Current policy directions, with a disproportionate and premature emphasis on electric buses, risk overlooking the complex economic realities, affordability constraints, and vast infrastructural gaps that define the country today.

The evidence presented in this paper—from national fleet shortfalls to the specific financial challenges in the Mumbai case study—clearly demonstrates that a blanket, near-term shift to EV buses is neither financially viable nor socially equitable. Instead, India requires a phased, pragmatic, and multi-fuel strategy. This involves urgently strengthening and expanding CNG, biogas, and hybrid bus systems in the short and medium term, while simultaneously and strategically building the technological, infrastructural, and financial capacity for large-scale EV adoption in the long run.

Alongside this diversified energy transition, deep reforms in governance, financing, and service delivery are non-negotiable. Directing investment toward Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities, implementing performance-linked funding for State Transport Undertakings, and maintaining an unwavering focus on safety, accessibility, and inclusion can transform buses into true engines of equity and economic growth.

The reinvention of India's public bus system is a national imperative. By aligning its policy with economic feasibility, environmental responsibility, and social justice, India can restore the bus as the most reliable, affordable, and sustainable mode of transport for the nation. Such a vision would not only decongest our cities and clean our air but also enhance national productivity, improve the quality of life for millions, and contribute meaningfully to building a resilient, prosperous, and equitable India for the 21st century.

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