Globalisation | Class 12 Political Science
This chapter introduces the political, economic and cultural consequences of globalisation. It examines the role globalisation plays in the growth of states in world politics, and it highlights India's place on the global stage. These standardised notes follow the NCERT Class 12 Political Science chapter, and they pair each idea with what is happening in the world today. You can find more study material in our resources library.
What is globalisation?
Globalisation is the interaction and integration of people, businesses and governments across the world.
It is a form of capitalist expansion in which local and national economies are drawn into a single, largely unregulated global market. Advances in transport and communication technology have driven this process, so international trade, ideas and culture all keep growing as global interactions increase.
Globalisation is mainly a process of business-to-business interaction and integration, but it carries deep social and cultural effects. Its history is filled with both conflict and diplomacy, and it does not have to benefit everyone: it can bring negative consequences too.
Flows lie at the heart of the idea of globalisation. The main flows are:
- Ideas moving from one part of the world to another.
- Capital shifting between two or more locations.
- Commodities being traded across borders.
- People migrating in search of better opportunities.
Because these flows are continuous, they create and maintain what we call global interconnectedness.
What are the causes of globalisation?
Globalisation has occurred across much of human history through these four flows, so it is important to view today's flows against that long history. It is not caused by a single factor, but technology remains central.
In recent times the telegraph, the telephone and the microchip revolutionised communication between actors in different parts of the world, just as the earlier invention of printing helped the rise of nationalism. These advances made it far easier for ideas, capital, commodities and people to move around the globe.
The speed of each flow can differ. The movement of capital and commodities is usually faster and wider than the movement of people between countries.
Communication is not the only cause. Events such as bird flu or a tsunami do not respect national boundaries, and when major economic events occur their effects are felt worldwide, well beyond their local, national or regional setting.
Political consequences
How does globalisation affect state sovereignty?
Globalisation reduces state capacity, that is, the government's ability to carry out its functions. Around the world the old welfare state is giving way to a more minimalist state that focuses on core functions such as law and order and the safety of citizens.
Such a state gives up many of its earlier welfare functions, and the market, rather than the state, becomes the main decider of economic and social priorities. The rise of multinational corporations has also reduced governments' ability to take independent decisions.
State capacity is not always reduced, however. The state remains the unquestioned foundation of the political community. It continues its core functions of law and order and national security while consciously stepping back from areas where it no longer wishes to act. States will continue to play an important role.
Economic consequences
The phrase economic globalisation immediately brings to mind international institutions such as the IMF and the World Trade Organisation (WTO), which help shape global economic policy. Many other actors are involved too, and a full study must ask who gains the most from globalisation and who suffers the most.
Economic globalisation usually means greater economic flows between countries:
- Increased trade in commodities across the globe, with fewer restrictions on importing goods from other countries.
- Eased restrictions on the movement of capital, so investors in developed countries can place money in developing countries where returns may be higher.
- Tighter guarding of borders through visa policies, so that developed countries protect their citizens' jobs from foreign workers.
The outcomes have varied widely around the world, and the debate is fierce. Those concerned with social justice worry that globalisation has forced the state to withdraw. This may benefit a small part of the population while hurting those who depend on the government for jobs and welfare such as education, health and sanitation. Critics call for institutional safeguards, or social safety nets, to cushion the poor.
Many movements argue that these safety nets are inadequate or ineffective. They want an end to forced economic globalisation, warning that the effects could be disastrous for poorer countries and for the poor within them. Some economists have even called economic globalisation a re-colonisation of the world.
Supporters take the opposite view. They argue that de-regulation leads to greater economic growth and well-being for more people, and that greater international trade lets each economy focus on what it does best, to the benefit of the whole world. More moderate supporters say globalisation is a challenge that can be handled wisely rather than accepted blindly. What cannot be denied is that globalisation has increased interdependence and integration among governments, businesses and ordinary people.
Cultural consequences
The effects of globalisation are not limited to politics and economics. It shapes what we eat, drink, wear and think, and it influences our tastes. This has led to worries that globalisation threatens the world's cultures.
One fear is cultural homogenisation, where a single uniform culture spreads. Some argue that the popularity of a burger or a pair of blue jeans reflects the powerful influence of the American way of life, so that the culture of a dominant society imprints itself on weaker societies. Critics call this the McDonaldisation of the world, and warn that it makes the world's rich cultural heritage shrink, which is dangerous for humanity as a whole.
Yet cultures never exist in a vacuum. Every culture takes in outside influences all the time. Such influences can narrow our choices, but they can also widen them and enrich a culture without overpowering the traditional. A burger does not replace a masala dosa, it simply adds to the menu, and blue jeans can be worn with a home-made khadi kurta.
So while globalisation produces homogenisation, it also has the opposite effect, making each culture more distinct. This is called cultural heterogeneity.
India and globalisation
During the colonial period, as a result of Britain's imperial ambitions, India became an exporter of primary goods and raw materials and a consumer of finished goods.
After independence India chose to make things on its own rather than depend on others, and it restricted imports. This protectionism created its own problems. While some advances were made, critical sectors such as health, housing and primary education did not get the attention they deserved, and economic growth stayed sluggish.
In 1991, responding to a financial crisis and a desire for faster growth, India began a programme of economic reforms that steadily de-regulated many sectors, including trade and foreign investment.
Resistance to globalisation
Globalisation is a divisive issue that has drawn criticism worldwide, from very different directions:
- Critics on the left argue that today's globalisation is a form of global capitalism that enriches the wealthy while impoverishing the poor, and that a weaker state can no longer protect its poor.
- Critics on the right worry about political, economic and cultural effects. They see the weakening of the state as dangerous, they want a return to self-sufficiency and protectionism in some areas, and they fear that traditional culture and ways of life will be harmed.
Interestingly, anti-globalisation movements join global networks too, forming alliances with like-minded people in other countries. Many of them oppose a specific programme of globalisation, which they view as a form of imperialism, rather than the idea of globalisation itself. A landmark example was the large protest at the WTO Ministerial Meeting in Seattle in 1999.
Why it still matters today
This chapter is not just history. The tug of war between free trade and protectionism that the textbook describes is one of the biggest stories in the world right now.
In 2025 the United States, under President Donald Trump, announced sweeping new import taxes called tariffs. Researchers at the London School of Economics have described this as the return of protectionism, and call it the most significant shift in American trade policy since the 1930s. Other economies, including the European Union, Japan, South Korea, Canada and Mexico, replied with tariffs of their own. This is exactly the debate between open borders and self-sufficiency that you just read about, playing out live.
The WTO, the same institution named in the economic section above, is watching the effect closely. In its October 2025 Global Trade Outlook the WTO expected world merchandise trade to grow by about 2.4 percent in 2025, helped by a rush of trade in goods linked to artificial intelligence, such as computer chips, and by companies bringing in imports early before tariffs rose. For 2026, though, it forecast growth of only about 0.5 percent, because higher tariffs and uncertainty are expected to slow trade down. In plain terms: the flows of goods that define globalisation are still growing, but the brakes are being applied.
Some thinkers argue that globalisation is ending, while others say it is simply changing shape. To connect these live debates to the wider world of ideas, explore the Learnacy Hub, and for more chapter revision see our Class 12 Political Science notes.