Contemporary South Asia | Class 12 Political Science
This chapter introduces you to the geopolitics of South Asia. It looks at every major player in the region and their political relations with one another, and it highlights India's relationship with each of its neighbours.
Introduction To South Asia
How is South Asia defined?
South Asia is defined as the subcontinent in the southernmost part of Asia, made up of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
What is the extent of South Asia?
The South Asian subcontinent is insulated by the Himalayas in the north and by the vast Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal to the south, west and east respectively.
In the east and west the region's boundaries are hazy. When the region is discussed as a whole, Afghanistan and Myanmar are frequently included.
China is also an important player in the region, but it is not considered a part of South Asia.
Why is there linguistic, social and cultural distinctiveness in South Asia?
This insulation, provided by natural boundaries in the north, south, east and west, gave the subcontinent its linguistic, social and cultural distinctiveness.
Diverse politics of South Asia
South Asia is diverse in every way while still forming a single geopolitical space. Several types of political system exist across South Asian countries:
Sri Lanka and India have run democratic systems since their independence from the British. Lately, though, the situation in Sri Lanka has not looked promising, as it slid to the cusp of bankruptcy after years of poor governance.
- Despite numerous constraints, both India and Sri Lanka have maintained their democracies.
Pakistan and Bangladesh have had both civilian and military rulers, but Bangladesh has remained a democracy since the end of the Cold War.
- Pakistan began with democratic governments, later led by figures such as Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif, but an elected government was overthrown by a military coup in 1999, and the country has swung between military regimes and democratic governments ever since.
- Pakistan has not seen even a single democratically elected government complete its full term.
Nepal was a constitutional monarchy until 2006, when the king threatened to seize executive power. The popular uprising that followed reduced the king to a nominal position and restored democracy.
Changes were similar in the region's smallest countries.
- Bhutan is a monarchy, but it has been working to become a multi-party democracy.
- The Maldives was a sultanate until 1968, when it became a republic with a presidential system of government.
Political Transformation In Maldives
In June 2005 the parliament of the Maldives voted unanimously to establish a multi-party system.
The Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) dominated the political scene in the early years.
After the 2005 elections some opposition parties were legalised, which helped Maldivian democracy mature.
Later the Progressive Party of Maldives also came to power, and the presidency has since passed back and forth between the main parties.
The Military And Political Developments In Pakistan
Pakistan's politics has been full of volatility, with no prime minister ever completing a full term. Pakistan has seen repeated swings between being a democracy and being under military rule.
General Ayub Khan was elected soon after taking over the country's administration, shortly after the constitution was drafted. His rule was marked by widespread dissatisfaction.
A military takeover was then carried out, this time led by General Yahya Khan.
The Bangladesh crisis unfolded during Yahya's military rule, and after a war with India in 1971, East Pakistan seceded to form the independent country of Bangladesh.
Pakistan was ruled by an elected government led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto from 1971 to 1977.
In 1977 General Zia-ul-Haq deposed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's government.
General Zia was confronted with a pro-democracy movement from 1982 onwards, and an elected democratic government was re-established in 1988 under Benazir Bhutto's leadership.
Pakistani politics was then dominated by the rivalry between her party, the Pakistan People's Party, and the Muslim League.
In 1999 General Pervez Musharraf intervened and deposed Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, ending that period of elective democracy for a while.
In more recent years the office of prime minister has continued to change hands, including the removal of Imran Khan through a no-confidence vote and his replacement by Shehbaz Sharif.
What were the factors that led to the failure of democracy in Pakistan?
The social dominance of the military, the clergy and the landowning aristocracy has repeatedly led to the overthrow of elected governments and the setting up of military governments.
Because of the country's conflict with India, pro-military groups in Pakistan have grown in strength.
These groups have repeatedly argued that Pakistan's political parties and its democracy are flawed, that selfish parties and chaotic democracy endanger Pakistan's security, and that only the army can safeguard the country.
Yet there is also a strong pro-democracy sentiment in Pakistan. The country has a strong human rights movement as well as a brave and relatively free press.
- The military's hold on power has been strengthened by a lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan.
- The United States and other Western countries have, in the past, supported the military's authoritarian rule for their own reasons.
- Fearing that Pakistan's nuclear arsenal might fall into the hands of terrorist groups, the military regime has often been viewed in the West as a protector of Western interests in West Asia and South Asia.
Democracy In Bangladesh
Political Developments
Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan from 1947 to 1971. It was made up of the partitioned areas of Bengal and Assam in British India. The people of this region resented the dominance of western Pakistan and the imposition of the Urdu language.
In response to the unfair treatment of Bengali culture and language, protests erupted. People also demanded equal representation and political power in government. The popular movement against West Pakistani dominance was led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who demanded that the eastern region be granted autonomy.
In the 1970 elections the Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujib, won almost every seat in East Pakistan, securing a majority in the proposed constituent assembly for the whole country.
Sheikh Mujib was arrested after the West Pakistani leadership refused to convene the assembly. Under the military rule of General Yahya Khan, the Pakistani army tried to suppress the mass movement of the Bengali people.
Thousands of people were killed, prompting a massive flow of refugees into India.
Both financially and militarily, the Indian government supported the people of East Pakistan in their demand for independence.
Constitution Of Bangladesh
As a result, in December 1971 India and Pakistan fought a war that ended with the surrender of Pakistani forces in East Pakistan and the birth of Bangladesh. The constitution of Bangladesh declared the country's faith in secularism, democracy and socialism.
In 1975 Sheikh Mujib changed the constitution to shift the government from a parliamentary to a presidential system.
All parties except his own, the Awami League, were outlawed, which led to conflict and tension. He was assassinated in August 1975.
In 1979 Zia ur Rahman, the new military ruler, formed his own Bangladesh National Party and won elections. He too was assassinated, prompting yet another military takeover, this time led by Lt Gen H. M. Ershad.
Bangladeshis quickly rallied behind the demand for democracy, with students leading the way. Ershad had no choice but to allow some political activity.
Ershad was later elected President for five years, but resigned in 1990 in the face of widespread public anger.
Since 1991 Bangladesh has been governed as a representative democracy based on multi-party elections.
Nepal: A Transition From Monarchy To Democracy
Nepal was a Hindu kingdom in the past and, in the modern era, became a constitutional monarchy.
Political parties and the general public in Nepal long wanted a more open and responsive government. The king, however, kept firm control over the government and limited democracy with the help of the army.
Following a strong pro-democracy movement, the king accepted the demand for a new democratic constitution in 1990.
Nepal's Maoists spread their influence across the country during the 1990s. They called for armed rebellion against the monarchy and the ruling elite, which led to violent conflict between Maoist guerrillas and the king's armed forces.
A triangular conflict developed between monarchists, democrats and Maoists.
The king dissolved parliament and dismissed the government, effectively ending Nepal's limited democracy in 2002.
Seven Party Alliance
There were nationwide pro-democracy demonstrations in 2006.
The pro-democracy forces won their first major victory when the king was forced to restore the House of Representatives that had been dissolved earlier.
The largely non-violent movement was led by the Seven Party Alliance (SPA), the Maoists and social activists.
Nepal's democratic transition was still incomplete at that stage, as the country prepared to form a constituent assembly to write a new constitution.
Some Nepalese still felt that a nominal monarchy was needed to preserve Nepal's historical identity.
The Maoists agreed to suspend their armed struggle. They wanted the constitution to include far-reaching social and economic restructuring programmes.
Such a programme was not acceptable to all of the SPA parties.
Ethnic Conflict And Democracy In Sri Lanka
Ethnic Conflict
Sri Lanka has been a democratic country since its independence in 1948. It faced a serious challenge, not from the military or the monarchy, but from ethnic conflict, which led to a demand for secession from one of its regions.
In Sri Lanka (Ceylon), forces representing the interests of the majority Sinhala community dominated politics.
They were hostile to the large number of Tamils who had migrated to Sri Lanka from India. People continued to migrate even after the country gained independence.
Sinhala nationalists believed that because Sri Lanka belonged only to the Sinhala people, no concessions should be made to the Tamils.
This disregard for Tamil concerns fuelled militant Tamil nationalism.
How did India become a key player in the Sri Lankan war?
The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a militant organisation, fought the Sri Lankan army in an armed conflict over the demand for Tamil Eelam, a separate country for Sri Lanka's Tamils.
The LTTE took control of Sri Lanka's north-eastern region. Because people of Indian origin were involved, Tamils in India put pressure on the Indian government to protect the interests of Tamils in Sri Lanka.
On several occasions the Indian government tried to negotiate with the Sri Lankan government over the Tamil issue. In 1987, for the first time, the Indian government became directly involved.
India and Sri Lanka signed a peace agreement, and India sent troops to help bring the Sri Lankan government and the Tamils together.
The Indian Army and the LTTE ended up fighting each other. The presence of Indian troops in Sri Lanka was also unpopular with the local population, who saw it as India interfering in Sri Lanka's internal affairs.
The Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) failed to complete its mission and withdrew.
The Economy of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka's civil war continued for many years. International actors, in particular Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Iceland, tried to mediate.
Despite the ongoing conflict, Sri Lanka achieved significant economic growth and high levels of human development.
After liberalising its economy, Sri Lanka was one of the first developing countries to successfully control population growth. For many years, even during the civil war, it had one of the highest levels of per capita GDP (gross domestic product) in the region.
A free trade agreement between India and Sri Lanka strengthened bilateral ties, and India's help in rebuilding Sri Lanka after the 2004 tsunami brought the two countries closer together.
India-Pakistan Conflicts
Following partition, the two countries became locked in a dispute over the future of Kashmir. The Pakistani government claimed Kashmir as its own.
India and Pakistan fought two wars, in 1947 to 1948 and in 1965, but neither resolved the conflict. During the 1947 to 1948 war the province was divided by the Line of Control, creating Pakistan-occupied Kashmir and the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir.
In 1971 India decisively defeated Pakistan, but the Kashmir issue still remained unresolved.
The rivalry between India and Pakistan is also about strategic issues such as control of the Siachen glacier and the acquisition of weapons.
India tested a nuclear device at Pokhran in 1998. Pakistan responded a few days later by conducting nuclear tests in the Chagai Hills.
India and Pakistan appear to have settled into a military relationship that reduces the likelihood of a full-scale war between them.
The Indian government has accused Pakistan of using a strategy of low-level violence by providing arms, training, money and shelter to militants in Kashmir so that they can carry out attacks inside India.
According to the Indian government, Pakistan was also suspected of supplying arms and ammunition to pro-Khalistan militants between 1985 and 1995.
Its spy agency, the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), has been accused of involvement in anti-India campaigns in India's north-east, allegedly run through Bangladesh and Nepal.
For its part, the Pakistani government accuses India's government and security agencies of stirring up unrest in the provinces of Sindh and Balochistan.
There have also been disputes over river water. Until 1960 both countries were locked in a bitter dispute over the use of the rivers of the Indus basin.
The Indus Waters Treaty, signed by India and Pakistan in 1960, has largely held up over time despite the two countries taking part in several military conflicts.
The demarcation line in Sir Creek, in the Rann of Kutch, remains a source of disagreement between the two countries.
All of these issues have, at various points, been on the table for talks between India and Pakistan.
India And Its Other Neighbours
India and Bangladesh
The Indian and Bangladeshi governments have disagreed on a number of issues, including the sharing of the Ganga and Brahmaputra river waters.
India has been troubled by disputes over illegal migration into India and over support for anti-Indian groups.
There have also been disagreements over allowing Indian goods and troops to pass to north-eastern India through Bangladeshi territory, and over the export of natural gas.
Bangladeshi governments, for their part, have at times felt that India acts like a regional bully over the sharing of river waters, over the Chittagong Hill Tracts, over natural gas and over trade.
The two countries have worked to resolve their border dispute, and their economic relations have improved significantly in recent decades.
Bangladesh is an important part of India's Look East policy, which seeks to connect India to South East Asia through Myanmar.
The two countries have regularly cooperated on disaster relief and environmental issues.
India and Nepal
Nepal and India share a special bond. A bilateral treaty allows citizens of the two countries to travel and work in the other without the need for a visa or passport.
The two governments have had trade disputes in the past.
Given the rise of Naxalite groups across India, Indian security agencies have at times viewed the Maoist movement in Nepal as a security concern.
Nepal, meanwhile, believes that India interferes in its internal affairs, has designs on its river waters and hydropower, and makes it harder for landlocked Nepal to reach the sea through Indian territory.
Even so, India and Nepal have relatively stable and peaceful relations. Trade, scientific cooperation, shared natural resources, electricity generation and connected water-management grids bind the two countries together.
India and Bhutan
India has a special relationship with Bhutan and no major disagreements with it.
Bhutan's efforts to remove guerrillas and militants operating against north-eastern India from its territory have benefited India.
India, which is involved in large hydroelectric projects in Bhutan, is the Himalayan kingdom's largest source of development aid.
India and the Maldives
The Maldives and India have maintained warm and cordial relations.
When Tamil mercenaries from Sri Lanka attacked the Maldives in November 1988, the Indian air force and navy responded quickly to a Maldivian request for help.
India has also contributed to the economic development, tourism and fisheries of the islands.
Why did India have problems with its smaller neighbours?
India often feels taken advantage of by its neighbours. It worries that political instability in these countries could allow outside powers to gain influence in the region.
The smaller countries, in turn, worry that India wants to be the dominant regional power.
Not all South Asian conflicts are between India and its neighbours. Nepal and Bhutan, as well as Bangladesh and Myanmar, have had their own disputes over the movement of ethnic groups across borders.
There have also been disagreements between Bangladesh and Nepal over the future of the Himalayan river waters.
The major conflicts and differences, however, are between India and the others. This is partly because of the geography of the region, in which India sits at the centre and is the only country that borders all the rest.
South Asian Association For Regional Cooperation
What Is SAARC?
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a major regional initiative launched by South Asian countries to promote cooperation through multilateral means.
SAARC has had only limited success because of persistent political differences among its members.
What is the South Asian Free Trade Agreement?
SAARC members signed the South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA), which promised to create a South Asian free trade zone. The agreement was signed in 2004 and came into effect on 1 January 2006.
SAFTA's aim was to reduce trade tariffs by 20% by 2007. Some neighbours worried that SAFTA would allow India to enter their markets and influence their societies and politics through business.
India, on the other hand, argued that SAFTA would bring real economic benefits to everyone, and that a region which trades more freely would be able to cooperate better on political issues.
Even though India and Pakistan relations have often been marked by conflict and violence, the two countries have agreed at times to put in place confidence-building measures to reduce the risk of war.
Social activists and prominent citizens have worked to build friendship between the peoples of both countries.
Leaders have met at summits to understand each other better and to search for solutions to the two neighbours' biggest problems.
Bus routes and trade between the two parts of Punjab have grown at various points, and visas have at times become easier to obtain.
Although relations between China and India have improved a great deal over the last few decades, China's strategic partnership with Pakistan remains a major source of friction.
The demands of development and globalisation have drawn the two Asian giants closer together, and their economic ties have grown rapidly since 1991.
After the Cold War, the involvement of the United States in South Asia grew quickly. It has maintained relations with both India and Pakistan and increasingly acts as a moderator in India and Pakistan relations, helped by economic reforms and liberal economic policies in both countries.
Why It Still Matters
This chapter is not frozen in a textbook. The same forces it describes, fragile democracies, the tug of war between army and civilian power, ethnic tension and a region that struggles to work together, are still shaping South Asia today. Here is how the story has moved on, and how it links to the wider world you can explore on the Learnacy Hub.
Bangladesh: the democracy cycle turns again
Your notes trace how Bangladesh swung between elected leaders and military rulers. That pattern returned in 2024. A student-led uprising in July 2024 forced Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, who had governed for more than fifteen years, to resign and flee to India. The Nobel Peace Prize winner Muhammad Yunus led an interim government while the country prepared for fresh polls. In February 2026 Bangladesh held its first free general election since the uprising. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party won a large majority and Tarique Rahman was sworn in as Prime Minister. It is a real-world example of the very struggle between popular protest and state power that this chapter is about, and you can revise the surrounding Class 12 Political Science notes to see how these ideas connect.
Sri Lanka: from bankruptcy to a slow recovery
Your notes describe Sri Lanka sitting on the cusp of bankruptcy. That is exactly what happened. In 2022 Sri Lanka became the first country in the Indo-Pacific region in decades to default on its foreign debt. Inflation shot above 70 percent, fuel and medicine ran short, and mass protests drove President Gotabaya Rajapaksa from office. A four-year International Monetary Fund rescue programme worth about 3 billion US dollars began in March 2023. Voters then elected a new president, Anura Kumara Dissanayake, in September 2024. By 2025 inflation had fallen and foreign reserves had roughly doubled, although the debt burden is still heavy. It shows how ethnic conflict and years of weak governance can tip even an old democracy into crisis.
SAARC: a regional club that has stopped meeting
The chapter ends on SAARC and its limited success. Today SAARC is effectively frozen. Its leaders last held a full summit in Kathmandu in 2014. The next summit, due in Islamabad in 2016, was called off after a militant attack on an Indian army camp in Uri, when India and other members refused to attend. More than a decade later no summit has been held, which is why much South Asian cooperation now happens through smaller groups instead. It is a live reminder of the point in your notes that political differences keep the region from working as one.
For more revision, browse the full study notes library, and use the Hub to connect these events to geography, economics and history in one place.