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Communalism

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Introduction

Communalism, in its broadest sense, refers to a strong sense of belonging to one's own community. In Indian popular discourse it is often read as an unhealthy attachment to one's own faith. It is one of the most important themes in Indian Polity and social studies, which is why it appears so often in board and competitive examinations.

As an ideology, communalism tries to unite a community by hiding its internal divisions and stressing its oneness in the face of other communities. In doing so it can promote orthodox beliefs, intolerance and hatred of other religions, and it divides society.

The positive element of communalism is a person's genuine affection for his or her own community, including efforts for its social and economic upliftment. In its harmful, pejorative sense, however, it is an ideology that emphasises one religious group's identity against others, with a tendency to advance its own interests to the detriment of the rest.

India's religious and cultural diversity is the raw material of communalism's political philosophy. As a propaganda tactic it has been used to deepen religious and ethnic divisions, producing communal animosity and violence. In the wrong hands it becomes a tool for religious fanatics who, at the cost of harmony, seek advantage by creating rifts within society.

Two Broad Streams

Scholars usually classify communal ideology into two broad streams:

Liberal: It does not rule out mediation and dialogue between groups in pursuit of larger patriotic aims. Liberal communal thinking encouraged different religious communities to talk to one another in order to build solidarity and share the goals of political independence, economic progress and the removal of poverty.
Radical: It shuts out the possibility of a negotiated union and stresses that the groups are in irreconcilable opposition. It argues that a religious community is a distinct nation that cannot survive within the same state, and that its aims can be met only when it has a separate territory under its own sovereignty. On this view the two communities' interests are not merely different but antagonistic.

Colonial Roots: Divide and Rule After 1857

After the Revolt of 1857 the British assumed that Muslims were chiefly responsible for the rebellion and began favouring Hindus. To prevent Muslims from being pushed to the margins, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan reassured the British of Muslim loyalty. Believing that minorities made more dependable allies, the British later leaned towards Muslims, using deep social fears to serve the empire.

To weaken the growing national movement, the British announced the Partition of Bengal in 1905, supported the founding of the Muslim League in 1906 and introduced separate electorates in 1909 through the Morley-Minto reforms.

In 1915 the Hindu Mahasabha was formed as a counterweight to the Muslim League. In 1919 separate electorates were extended to other minorities such as Sikhs, Parsis and Anglo-Indians, which posed a further challenge to Indian unity.

In 1923 V.D. Savarkar set out the idea of Hindutva, or Hindu nationalism, which holds that a person's fatherland and holy land should be one and the same. Muhammad Iqbal responded with the idea of Muslim brotherhood, arguing that it was against Islam for Muslims to live under man-made laws rather than sharia, and that Islam rejects the idea of a purely geographical nation. On this reasoning Muslims formed one community that could not be divided along territorial lines, an argument that later fed into the two-nation theory.

Communalism After Independence

The fourth general election of 1967 broke the old Congress system, producing non-Congress governments in eight states and Congress-led coalitions in nine. Political competition grew fierce and identity politics strengthened, with caste and religion becoming more prominent in public life.

Among the most tragic expressions of sectarian politics were the communal conflicts in Punjab. They culminated in Operation Blue Star in 1984, the assassination of Indira Gandhi and the anti-Sikh riots in Delhi and other parts of the country.

Since the 1990s, identity politics has become steadily more influential. Mandal, Mandir and Masjid became the idioms of Indian politics: the age of coalition politics began at the union level and political struggle intensified. The memory of the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992 is still fresh.

In his book The Saffron Wave, Thomas Blom Hansen linked the communalisation of Indian politics to the rapid rise of the BJP, a party that had held only two Lok Sabha seats in 1984 but by 1999 could lead a coalition government with its partners.

Rajiv Gandhi's Role

To strengthen the Congress position, Rajiv Gandhi followed a policy of double appeasement. To reassure Hindu opinion, the government allowed the shilanyas puja and the opening of the locks at the Ram Janmabhoomi site. To satisfy conservative Muslim opinion, it diluted the Supreme Court's landmark ruling in the Shah Bano case through a new law in 1986.

The BJP, Advani and the Rath Yatra

The BJP was worried that Congress had seized control of the mandir agenda. It responded by launching the Rath Yatra in 1990. The Yatra sharpened tensions and, in 1992, the Babri Masjid was demolished. This was followed by riots in Mumbai and, later, by communal violence in Gujarat, including Godhra in 2002, and in Muzaffarnagar in 2013.

Factors Contributing to Communal Violence

As a political ideology, communalism exploits differences between religions and cultures in order to gain political power. Several factors make communal violence more likely:

Insecurity from inequality: economic inequality, social division, poverty and unemployment leave people feeling less secure and more open to political manipulation.
A history of riots: a town that has already seen communal riots once or twice is more likely to see them again than one that never has.
Politics of appeasement: parties take decisions that encourage communal conflict for political reasons and vested interests.
Economic and social isolation of Muslims: a sense of relative deprivation, limited access to modern scientific and technical education, and under-representation in government, business and other sectors.
Weak law and order: a breakdown of order often sparks or worsens communal violence.
Psychology: the absence of trust and mutual understanding between two groups can create feelings of threat and harassment, which turn into fear, hatred and violence.
Media and rumour: when speculation is passed off as "news", it can inflame tensions, and social media can spread reports of communal tension or riots across the country within minutes.

According to the political scientist Paul Brass, communal riots in India are not spontaneous. He argues that the country has a well-developed, almost institutionalised riot system, in which riots are organised in a professional way. Riots help political parties by consolidating and polarising votes, which is why, he suggests, no party makes a serious effort to end them. With enough political will, he argues, communal riots could be controlled.

Way Forward

Value-oriented education that builds peace, non-violence, compassion, secularism and humanism, along with scientific temper (an enshrined fundamental duty) and rationalism, from childhood.
India could learn from Hong Kong's Race Relations Unit, which promotes racial harmony, runs a complaints hotline and visits schools to teach students about minority cultures and prejudice.
Government support for civil society and non-profit organisations working to improve community life.
Well-designed and well-managed minority welfare schemes that address discrimination in jobs, housing and daily life.
A more proactive National Foundation for Communal Harmony (NFCH), which promotes communal harmony, brotherhood and national integration and, through its Project Assist, helps children orphaned by communal, caste, ethnic or terrorist violence.
Effective implementation of the provisions of the Constitution and the laws already in place.
Curbs on citizen vigilantism.
A responsible media that keeps the country's secular fabric in mind when reporting communal rifts.

Why It Still Matters

Communalism is not just history. The very disputes that run through these notes, over the Babri Masjid, the Ram Janmabhoomi and other places of worship, are still being fought out in India's courts today.

To stop exactly these quarrels, Parliament passed the Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991. It freezes the religious character of any place of worship as it stood on 15 August 1947 and forbids converting one into another. Only the Ayodhya site was left out, because that case was already before the courts. In 2020 an advocate named Ashwini Kumar Upadhyay challenged the Act in the Supreme Court, arguing that it wrongly stops communities from reclaiming sites they believe were destroyed long ago.

Since then, courts have faced a wave of petitions asking for surveys of old mosques on the claim that temples lie beneath them. In November 2024, a district court ordered a survey of the Shahi Jama Masjid in Sambhal, Uttar Pradesh. Rumours spread, a crowd gathered, stones were thrown and the police opened fire: five people were killed. It was a real-life version of the "spark in an already tense town" that these notes describe.

On 12 December 2024, the Supreme Court stepped in. It stayed the registration of any new suits seeking such surveys and told lower courts not to pass final orders in pending disputes, including the Gyanvapi mosque in Varanasi, the Krishna Janmabhoomi and Shahi Idgah case in Mathura, Sambhal and the Ajmer dargah, until it decides whether the 1991 Act is constitutional. The case is a live test of whether a single law can hold back the communal politics explained above.

There is a hopeful side too. The National Foundation for Communal Harmony, named in the "Way Forward" above, still runs Communal Harmony Week (also called Quami Ekta Week) every year from 19 to 25 November, and through Project Assist it supports children orphaned by communal, caste, ethnic or terrorist violence. To see how topics like this connect to the wider world you can explore the Learnacy Hub, or browse more notes in our study-notes library.

Sources

Key takeaways

Communalism is a strong attachment to one's own community that can become an ideology emphasizing one religious group against others, promoting intolerance and division.
Scholars classify communal ideology into two streams: Liberal (open to dialogue and cooperation for patriotic aims) and Radical (stresses irreconcilable opposition and separate nationhood).
The British Divide and Rule policy after 1857 exploited religious divisions by favoring different communities at different times to weaken the national movement.
After 1967, identity politics strengthened in India, leading to communal conflicts in Punjab, the rise of the BJP, and events like the Babri Masjid demolition in 1992.
Factors contributing to communal violence include economic inequality, social division, prior history of riots, and politics of appeasement.

Test yourself

What is the positive element of communalism?

A person's genuine affection for his or her own community, including efforts for its social and economic upliftment.

What are the two broad streams of communal ideology?

Liberal: does not rule out mediation and dialogue between groups in pursuit of larger patriotic aims. Radical: shuts out the possibility of a negotiated union and stresses that groups are in irreconcilable opposition.

How did the British use Divide and Rule after 1857?

After the Revolt of 1857 the British assumed that Muslims were chiefly responsible and began favouring Hindus. Later, believing minorities made more dependable allies, they leaned towards Muslims. They announced the Partition of Bengal in 1905, supported the founding of the Muslim League in 1906 and introduced separate electorates in 1909.

Frequently asked questions

What is the difference between the positive and negative meanings of communalism in Indian discourse?

In its positive sense, communalism reflects a person's affection for their own community and efforts for its social and economic upliftment. In its negative sense, it becomes an ideology that emphasizes one religious group's identity against others, often promoting intolerance and harming societal harmony.

How did colonial policies after 1857 contribute to the growth of communalism in India?

After 1857, the British used divide-and-rule tactics, such as introducing separate electorates, supporting organizations like the Muslim League, and partitioning Bengal, to weaken the national movement and deepen religious divisions among Indians.

What distinguishes liberal communalism from radical communalism?

Liberal communalism encourages dialogue and mediation between communities to achieve shared goals like independence and economic progress, while radical communalism rejects negotiation, viewing communities as irreconcilably opposed and advocating for separate territorial sovereignty.

What is Hindutva, and how did it emerge in response to colonial policies?

Hindutva, articulated by V.D. Savarkar in 1923, is the idea that a person's fatherland and holy land should be one and the same, framing Hindu identity in territorial and religious terms. It emerged as a counter to colonial policies and the rise of Muslim communalism, which sought political recognition for Muslims as a distinct community.

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