CBSE Class 8 History: The Making of the National Movement (1870s–1947) Study Notes

The Indian National Movement was not a sudden burst of anger, but a systematic, evolving struggle that transformed diverse communities across the subcontinent into a unified nation. Spanning from the late nineteenth century to 1947, this transformative era saw Indians transition from petitioning British rulers for administrative concessions to demanding absolute self-rule (Purna Swaraj).

1. The Rise of National Consciousness and Early Resistance (1870s–1885)

By the 1870s and 1880s, Indian intellectuals and professionals began questioning the exploitative nature of British colonial rule. Dissatisfaction intensified due to a series of repressive racial policies enacted by Lord Lytton's administration.

Three major colonial measures served as catalysts for widespread political agitation:

• The Arms Act (1878): Disallowed Indians from possessing firearms without licenses, while Europeans were exempted.
• The Vernacular Press Act (1878): Allowed the colonial state to confiscate printing presses and assets of newspapers that printed content critical of the government.
• The Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883): Proposed to allow Indian judges to try European offenders in criminal cases. Furious protests by the British community forced the government to withdraw the bill, exposing deep-seated racial bias.

These controversies highlighted the urgent need for an all-India political body. In December 1885, 72 delegates met at Bombay to establish the Indian National Congress (INC), guided by early pioneers like Dadabhai Naoroji, Dinshaw Wacha, and retired British civil servant A.O. Hume.

2. Moderates, Radicals, and the Partition of Bengal (1885–1905)

During its first two decades, Congress leaders were predominantly Moderates (such as Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, and W.C. Bonnerjee). They believed in constitutional agitation—using petitions, memorandums, speeches, and press articles to persuade the British government to enact administrative and legislative reforms, including the Indianisation of civil services.

By the late 1890s, a younger group known as Radicals—led by Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Lala Lajpat Rai (popularly termed Lal-Bal-Pal)—criticized the "politics of prayers." Tilak famously declared, "Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!"

The turning point arrived in 1905, when Viceroy Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal on the pretext of administrative efficiency. In reality, the partition aimed to weaken the nerve centre of Indian nationalism by dividing Bengali Hindus and Muslims. This sparked the massive Swadeshi Movement, which promoted Indian-made goods, established national educational institutions, and boycotted foreign cloth and British institutions.

3. The Entry of Mahatma Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation (1915–1922)

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in January 1915, having refined the philosophy of Satyagraha (non-violent resistance based on truth). After spending a year travelling across India, he led targeted local struggles: supporting indigo farmers in Champaran (1917), peasants in Kheda (1918), and textile mill workers in Ahmedabad (1918).

Post-World War I hardships and repressive colonial laws provoked countrywide resistance:

• Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919): A nationwide strike organized against the Rowlatt Act, which allowed detention without trial.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919): General Dyer opened fire on an unarmed gathering in Amritsar, sparking profound trauma and outrage across the nation.
• Khilafat Agitation & Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922): Gandhi united the Khilafat cause (led by Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali) with Congress demands. Thousands surrendered titles, boycotted government schools, courts, and foreign clothes, while spinning Khadi on the charkha.

Gandhi abruptly halted the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922 after an angry crowd set fire to a police station at Chauri Chaura in Uttar Pradesh, killing 22 policemen, demonstrating his uncompromising commitment to non-violence.

4. From Simon Commission to the Dandi March (1927–1934)

In 1927, the British appointed the Simon Commission to review constitutional progress in India. Because it contained no Indian members, it was met with black flags and universal protests under the slogan "Simon Go Back."

Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru at the Lahore Congress Session (1929), the Congress adopted the historic resolution of Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) and celebrated 26 January 1930 as Independence Day.

To launch the Civil Disobedience Movement, Gandhi led the iconic Salt March in March-April 1930:

• Gandhi and 78 volunteers marched 240 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi.
• On 6 April 1930, Gandhi broke the salt law by picking up a fistful of natural salt, directly challenging the state's monopoly on an essential commodity used by rich and poor alike.

The movement spread nationwide, bringing peasants, women, students, and merchants into active civil defiance against forest laws, liquor shops, and colonial revenue collections.

5. The Final Decade: Quit India, Bose, and Independence (1939–1947)

The outbreak of World War II in 1939 brought political tensions to a head. The Congress ministries resigned in protest against Britain dragging India into the war without consent. Following the failure of the Cripps Mission in 1942, Gandhi launched the decisive Quit India Movement in August 1942 with the historic battle cry: "Do or Die" (Karo ya Maro).

Simultaneously, Subhas Chandra Bose mobilized the Indian National Army (INA / Azad Hind Fauj) in Southeast Asia to liberate India from British rule from the outside, popularizing slogans like "Jai Hind" and "Dilli Chalo".

After the war, the 1946 Cabinet Mission failed to formulate a mutually agreeable confederation plan between the Congress and the Muslim League. The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, demanded a separate sovereign state of Pakistan and called for "Direct Action Day" on 16 August 1946, sparking severe communal riots. Despite the tragic partition of the subcontinent, India achieved independence on 15 August 1947.

Key takeaways

• Colonial policies like the Arms Act, Vernacular Press Act, and Ilbert Bill controversy forged early pan-Indian national unity.
• The Moderates focused on administrative reforms through petitions, while Radicals like Tilak popularized direct mass mobilization.
• The 1905 Partition of Bengal triggered the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement, shaping modern boycott and self-reliance strategies.
• Gandhi transformed nationalism into a mass movement through Satyagraha, Rowlatt protests, Non-Cooperation, and the Salt March.
• The final push came through the Quit India Movement (1942), INA operations under Bose, and post-war political negotiations leading to independence and partition in 1947.

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