Unipolar World | ISC Class 11 Political Science Notes

This note covers the meaning of unilateralism and the unipolar world, the causes and main events of US interventions in Iraq (Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom) and Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom), and India's defence and trade relations with the USA after 1991.

What is a unipolar world and what does unilateralism mean?

A unipolar world is an international order in which one state holds preponderant military, economic and political power, so that no other state or group of states can balance it.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Cold War's bipolar rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union ended, and the United States was left as the single superpower. Writers often describe the period that followed as the "unipolar moment".

Unilateralism is the conduct of foreign and security policy by one state acting alone, or with a small group of willing partners, without the authorisation of a collective body such as the United Nations Security Council and without binding consultation with allies.

Its opposite is multilateralism, where decisions are taken jointly through international institutions and treaties.

Definition: Unilateralism is the pursuit of a country's objectives in world affairs by its own independent action, refusing to make that action conditional on the agreement of other states or of an international organisation.

Unilateralism is a matter of degree, not an all-or-nothing label. A state may act alone in some matters and multilaterally in others.

The United States in the 1990s and 2000s, for example, worked through the United Nations to authorise the ejection of Iraqi forces from Kuwait in 1990-91, but invaded Iraq in 2003 without a fresh Security Council authorisation.

Both episodes are studied as examples of US unilateralism, the second more clearly than the first.

The legal test is set by the United Nations Charter. Article 2(4) forbids the threat or use of force against another state. It allows two exceptions: Article 51 keeps the right of self-defence against an armed attack, and under Chapter VII (Article 39 to Article 42) the Security Council may decide on military action to restore peace. An intervention is more unilateral the further it moves from these two bases.

What are the features of US unilateralism after the Cold War?

Several features are usually identified in the US conduct of world affairs after 1991.

• Military preponderance: the United States spent more on defence than the next several powers combined and maintained a global system of alliances and bases.
• Willingness to use force: it intervened militarily in the Persian Gulf, the Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq within a little over a decade.
• Reluctance to be bound: it declined to join the International Criminal Court, rejected the Kyoto Protocol on climate change in 2001 and withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 2002.
• Doctrine of pre-emption: after the attacks of 11 September 2001, the United States claimed the right to strike first against perceived threats before they materialised.
• Coalitions of the willing: it preferred ad hoc partners to formal UN authorisation where the Security Council was likely to refuse.

Critics argued that these features weakened the United Nations and international law. Supporters argued that the United States was providing global security as the leading power. The debate is the reason the unit pairs the idea of unilateralism with concrete case studies.

What caused US intervention in Iraq in 1990-91?

The first Iraq case study is Operation Desert Storm, fought in January and February 1991.

Causes. On 2 August 1990 Iraq, under President Saddam Hussein, invaded and annexed Kuwait. Iraq claimed that Kuwait was historically part of Iraq and accused it of over-producing oil, which depressed prices and hurt the Iraqi economy after the long Iran-Iraq war of 1980-88.

Iraq also owed Kuwait large sums borrowed during that war. The invasion gave the United States and its allies the immediate cause of reversing the annexation and protecting Saudi Arabia and the Gulf's oil supplies.

Main events. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 660 demanding immediate withdrawal and Resolution 678 authorising the use of "all necessary means" if Iraq did not withdraw by 15 January 1991.

A US-led coalition of some thirty-four countries, including Britain, France, Saudi Arabia and Egypt, assembled in the Gulf. Air operations began on 17 January 1991 and a ground offensive followed on 24 February.

Kuwait was liberated within about one hundred hours, and a ceasefire was declared on 28 February 1991. Iraq accepted the UN resolutions, including the destruction of its chemical and biological weapons programmes.

Note: Desert Storm was authorised by the Security Council and fought by a broad coalition, so it is a weaker example of unilateralism than the 2003 war. It is studied because it began the long US military presence in the Gulf.

What caused the 2003 invasion of Iraq and what happened?

The second Iraq case study is Operation Iraqi Freedom, launched in March 2003.

Causes. After 11 September 2001 the United States accused Iraq of possessing weapons of mass destruction and of links with terrorist groups. President George W. Bush named Iraq, Iran and North Korea an "axis of evil" in January 2002.

The United States pressed the Security Council to authorise force, but France, Russia, China and Germany opposed a new resolution.

The United States and Britain, joined by Australia and Poland, then acted without explicit Security Council authorisation. They argued that earlier resolutions, including Resolution 1441 of November 2002, already allowed force; most other members of the Council disagreed. This is why the war is treated as the clearest case of US unilateralism.

Main events. The invasion began on 20 March 2003 with air strikes on Baghdad. Baghdad fell in April 2003 and Saddam Hussein was captured in December 2003 and later executed.

No weapons of mass destruction were found, which damaged the credibility of the stated case for war. An American-led occupation authority governed Iraq until 2004.

The war was followed by years of insurgency and sectarian violence, and US combat operations formally ended in August 2010, and the last US troops left Iraq in December 2011.

What caused US intervention in Afghanistan and what happened?

The Afghanistan case study is Operation Enduring Freedom, begun in October 2001.

Causes. The attacks of 11 September 2001 killed nearly three thousand people in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania. The United States identified the Islamist group Al-Qaeda, then based in Afghanistan and led by Osama bin Laden, as responsible.

The Taliban government of Afghanistan refused to hand bin Laden over. The United States demanded that the Taliban surrender Al-Qaeda leaders and close its training camps.

On 12 September 2001 NATO invoked Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty for the first time in its history, treating the attack on the United States as an attack on all its members. When the strikes began, the United States told the Security Council that it was acting in self-defence under Article 51 of the UN Charter.

Main events. Air strikes began on 7 October 2001. The United States worked with the Northern Alliance, an Afghan opposition coalition, which entered Kabul in November 2001. The Taliban regime collapsed and a new government under Hamid Karzai was installed.

A UN-authorised International Security Assistance Force was set up in December 2001. Osama bin Laden was killed by US forces in Pakistan in May 2011.

The United States signed a strategic partnership agreement with Afghanistan in 2012 and ended its combat mission in 2014, though a smaller force stayed on. The Taliban returned to power in August 2021 as US and allied troops withdrew.

Note: Enduring Freedom was launched in self-defence after 11 September and was widely supported at the outset, but it became the longest war in US history and ended without a stable settlement.

How do the Iraq and Afghanistan interventions differ?

The two case studies are often compared to show that unilateralism is not a single pattern.

The comparison shows that the degree of unilateralism depends on the legal basis claimed, the breadth of the coalition and the support of other major powers.

How did India's defence relations with the USA change after 1991?

India's relations with the United States were cool for most of the Cold War, because India led the Non-Aligned Movement and signed a friendship treaty with the Soviet Union in 1971.

The end of the Cold War in 1991 and India's economic reforms of the same year opened a new phase.

Defence relations developed in stages. A defence framework agreement was signed in 2005. Joint military exercises such as Malabar, originally a bilateral India-US naval exercise, expanded.

India began buying US military equipment, including C-130J and C-17 transport aircraft, P-8I maritime patrol aircraft, AH-64 Apache helicopters and M777 howitzers. In 2016 the United States designated India a Major Defence Partner.

In 2018 India and the United States signed the Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA), following the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) of 2016 and the General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA) of 2002. The Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA) of 2020, on sharing geospatial information, completed the set. These four are the "foundational agreements" that make deeper interoperability possible.

India has kept its strategic autonomy, continuing to buy Russian systems such as the S-400 air defence system, which the United States has criticised. US defence sales to India grew from almost nothing in 1991 to more than 20 billion dollars in total by 2020.

How did India's trade relations with the USA change after 1991?

India's economic liberalisation of 1991 removed licensing controls and lowered tariffs, and the United States became one of India's largest trading partners.

• Trade in goods and services: two-way trade grew from a few billion dollars in the early 1990s to well over one hundred billion dollars by the late 2010s. India's main goods exports to the United States include pharmaceuticals, textiles, and gems and jewellery; its main imports include machinery, aircraft, chemicals and energy products.
• Services and software: Indian software and business services firms became major suppliers to US companies, and the United States is the largest market for Indian IT services.
• Investment: US companies invested heavily in India, and Indian firms invested in the United States.
• Disputes: the two countries have argued over tariffs on steel and aluminium, over Indian price controls on medical devices, and over the US decision in 2019 to withdraw preferential tariff benefits under its Generalised System of Preferences.

Trade has generally been the steadiest part of the relationship, less affected by strategic disagreements than defence.

How does the unipolar world differ from earlier world orders?

Comparing world orders helps place unilateralism in context.

The unipolar order is not the same as unilateralism. A unipolar order describes the distribution of power; unilateralism describes how the leading power chooses to use it. The United States sometimes acted multilaterally even while it was the only superpower.

What are the arguments for and against unilateralism?

Arguments for. Supporters say that a single decisive power can act quickly when the Security Council is deadlocked; that the leading power bears a disproportionate share of global security costs; and that in cases of self-defence, such as Afghanistan in 2001, action cannot wait for collective approval.

Arguments against. Critics say that unilateral action undermines the United Nations Charter, which restricts the use of force to self-defence under Article 51 or Security Council authorisation; that it sets a precedent other states may follow; that it is costly and often produces unstable outcomes, as in Iraq after 2003 and Afghanistan after 2001; and that it breeds resentment of the leading power.

Most analysts conclude that unilateralism is neither always wrong nor always right, and that its legitimacy depends on the legal basis, the breadth of support and the consequences.

How is a case study of a US intervention analysed?

A case study answer should follow a fixed order so that no part is missed.

1. Name the operation and give its dates and the countries involved.
2. State the immediate cause, such as an invasion or a terrorist attack.
3. State the deeper causes, such as oil, security or regime change.
4. State the legal basis claimed, whether a Security Council resolution or self-defence.
5. List the main events in chronological order.
6. State the outcome and its consequences.
7. Assess how far the action was unilateral.

Draw a horizontal line marked 1990, 1991, 2001, 2003, 2011 and 2021, and place Desert Storm, Enduring Freedom, Iraqi Freedom, the killing of bin Laden and the Taliban's return at the correct points.

Going beyond the syllabus

These ideas extend the unit and are not needed for the questions on it.

The unipolar moment is now debated. China's economic growth and Russia's military actions have led some writers to speak of a return to multipolarity.

India's own position, engaging the United States while buying Russian defence equipment and joining groupings such as BRICS and the Quad, is often described as multi-alignment.

These debates are useful for understanding why the 1991 to 2003 period is studied as a distinct phase.

Glossary

• Unipolar world: an international order dominated by one state with no rival of comparable power.
• Unilateralism: action by one state alone, without collective authorisation or binding consultation.
• Multilateralism: decision-making jointly through international institutions and treaties.
• Coalition of the willing: an ad hoc group of states assembled by a leading power for a specific action.
• Pre-emption: the claimed right to strike first against a threat before it materialises.
• Security Council resolution: a formal decision of the UN body with primary responsibility for peace and security.
• Strategic autonomy: a state's ability to make its own foreign and defence choices without dependence on an ally.
• Major Defence Partner: the US designation given to India in 2016 to ease defence trade and cooperation.
• Foundational agreements: the India-US pacts on logistics, communications security and military information.
• Axis of evil: the term used in 2002 for Iraq, Iran and North Korea.
• Multipolarity: an order in which several powers share influence.
• Multi-alignment: a policy of engaging several powers at once rather than joining one camp.

Common errors and misconceptions

• Misconception: Unipolar and unilateral mean the same thing. Correct: Unipolar describes the distribution of power; unilateral describes a method of acting.
• Misconception: Desert Storm was fought without UN approval. Correct: It was authorised by Security Council Resolution 678.
• Misconception: Weapons of mass destruction were found in Iraq after 2003. Correct: None were found, which damaged the credibility of the stated case for war.
• Misconception: The Taliban were never removed from power. Correct: They were removed in 2001 and returned in 2021.
• Misconception: India and the USA were close allies throughout the Cold War. Correct: Relations were cool; India was non-aligned and close to the Soviet Union.
• Misconception: India's defence purchases after 1991 were only from the USA. Correct: India continued to buy Russian systems such as the S-400.
• Misconception: Enduring Freedom was launched in 2003. Correct: It began on 7 October 2001.

Exam-style questions with model answers

Q1. Define unilateralism. [2 marks]

1. Unilateralism is the conduct of foreign and security policy by one state acting alone, or with a small group of willing partners, without the authorisation of a collective body such as the UN Security Council.
2. Its opposite is multilateralism, where decisions are taken jointly through international institutions.

Q2. State two causes of Operation Desert Storm. [2 marks]

1. Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait on 2 August 1990, claiming it historically and accusing it of over-producing oil.
2. The UN Security Council demanded withdrawal and authorised force, and the United States led a coalition to protect Saudi Arabia and Gulf oil supplies.

Q3. Why is Operation Iraqi Freedom treated as the clearest case of US unilateralism? [4 marks]

1. The United States accused Iraq of possessing weapons of mass destruction and of terrorist links after 11 September 2001.
2. It sought a new Security Council resolution authorising force, but France, Russia, China and Germany opposed it.
3. The United States and Britain invaded on 20 March 2003 without explicit Security Council authorisation.
4. No weapons of mass destruction were found, which damaged the credibility of the stated case for war.

Q4. Outline the main events of Operation Enduring Freedom. [4 marks]

1. After the attacks of 11 September 2001, the United States demanded that the Taliban hand over Al-Qaeda leaders; the Taliban refused.
2. Air strikes began on 7 October 2001, working with the Northern Alliance.
3. The Taliban regime collapsed and a government under Hamid Karzai was installed, with a UN-authorised security force set up in December 2001.
4. Osama bin Laden was killed in May 2011, US combat operations ended in 2014, and the Taliban returned to power in August 2021.

Q5. Compare the 1991 and 2003 Iraq interventions on legal basis and coalition. [4 marks]

1. In 1991 the Security Council passed Resolution 678 authorising "all necessary means"; in 2003 there was no fresh authorisation.
2. The 1991 coalition had some thirty-four countries including Britain, France, Saudi Arabia and Egypt; the 2003 coalition was mainly the United States and Britain.
3. In 1991 the stated aim was to liberate Kuwait; in 2003 it was to disarm Iraq and remove Saddam Hussein.
4. Hence 1991 is a weaker and 2003 a stronger example of US unilateralism.

Q6. Explain how India's defence relations with the USA developed after 1991. [5 marks]

1. The end of the Cold War in 1991 and India's economic reforms opened a new phase after decades of cool relations.
2. A defence framework agreement was signed in 2005 and joint exercises such as Malabar expanded.
3. India bought US equipment including C-130J and C-17 transport aircraft, P-8I aircraft, Apache helicopters and M777 howitzers.
4. The United States designated India a Major Defence Partner in 2016, and the foundational agreements GSOMIA, LEMOA, COMCASA and BECA were signed in 2002, 2016, 2018 and 2020.
5. India kept strategic autonomy, continuing to buy Russian systems such as the S-400, which the United States criticised.

Q7. Discuss India's trade relations with the USA after 1991. [5 marks]

1. India's liberalisation of 1991 lowered tariffs and removed licensing controls, and the United States became one of India's largest trading partners.
2. Two-way trade in goods and services grew from a few billion dollars in the early 1990s to well over one hundred billion dollars by the late 2010s.
3. India exports pharmaceuticals, textiles, gems and jewellery, and IT services; it imports machinery, aircraft, chemicals and energy products.
4. The United States is the largest market for Indian IT services, and investment flows both ways.
5. Disputes arose over US tariffs on steel and aluminium, Indian price controls on medical devices, and the 2019 withdrawal of GSP benefits.

Q8. "A unipolar world does not necessarily produce unilateral behaviour." Evaluate. [6 marks]

1. A unipolar world describes the distribution of power, with the United States as the only superpower after 1991; unilateralism describes how that power is used.
2. In 1991 the United States worked through the Security Council and a broad coalition, which was multilateral in method.
3. In 2003 it acted without a fresh authorisation, which was unilateral in method.
4. In 2001 it claimed self-defence, which was widely accepted, so the action was only moderately unilateral.
5. Hence the same unipolar structure produced different methods, depending on the legal basis, the breadth of the coalition and the support of other major powers.
6. The statement is therefore largely correct: structure sets the limits, but choice determines the method.

Key takeaways

• A unipolar world has one dominant power; unilateralism is a method of acting alone.
• Desert Storm in 1991 was UN-authorised and fought by a broad coalition.
• Iraqi Freedom in 2003 lacked explicit Security Council authorisation and is the clearest case of US unilateralism.
• Enduring Freedom began on 7 October 2001 after the 11 September attacks.
• The Taliban were removed in 2001 and returned to power in 2021.
• India's defence ties with the USA grew through the 2005 framework and four foundational agreements signed between 2002 and 2020.
• India kept strategic autonomy, continuing to buy Russian systems such as the S-400.
• Trade grew sharply after 1991 but disputes over tariffs and GSP benefits persisted.

Test yourself

When did Operation Desert Storm begin and end?

Air operations began on 17 January 1991 and a ground offensive on 24 February; a ceasefire was declared on 28 February 1991.

Which resolution authorised force against Iraq in 1990?

Security Council Resolution 678, which authorised "all necessary means" if Iraq did not withdraw by 15 January 1991.

What was the "axis of evil"?

The term used by President George W. Bush in January 2002 for Iraq, Iran and North Korea.

When was Osama bin Laden killed?

In May 2011, by US forces in Pakistan.

What is the Major Defence Partner designation?

The US designation given to India in 2016 to ease defence trade and technology cooperation.

Name the four India-US foundational agreements.

GSOMIA of 2002, LEMOA of 2016, COMCASA of 2018 and BECA of 2020.

Why did the United States withdraw GSP benefits from India?

In June 2019 the United States ended India's preferential tariff benefits under its Generalised System of Preferences, saying India had not assured it equitable and reasonable access to Indian markets.