Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Indian Women’s Long Walk to Parliament

Abstract

This paper examines the persistent barriers that keep Indian women underrepresented in elected politics, and the slow, uneven progress being made against them. Women make up nearly half of India's population and electorate, yet they held only about 13.6 per cent of Lok Sabha seats after the 2024 general election, a figure that in fact fell from the record set in 2019. Drawing on data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union, UN Women, the Observer Research Foundation, the Ministry of Panchayati Raj and PRS Legislative Research, the paper traces the historical, cultural and structural roots of this imbalance, sets out its consequences for representation and equality, and reviews genuine signs of progress, from women's rise in local government to the passage of the Constitution (106th Amendment) Act 2023. It argues that legislation alone is not enough: symbolic milestones must be matched by resources, safety, training and institutional support if women are to move from the margins to the centre of India's democracy. The central finding is a paradox worth confronting: a landmark reservation law was enacted in 2023, yet women's presence in the Lok Sabha declined in 2024, because that law will not take effect until a future census and delimitation exercise, expected around 2029.

Introduction

This paper examines the persistent barriers faced by Indian women seeking to enter and succeed in the political arena. From freedom fighters to modern-day changemakers, Indian women have always been an integral part of the nation's story. Yet, despite their historic and ongoing contributions, they remain significantly underrepresented in positions of political power, and their efforts are often overlooked. Constituting nearly half of India's population, women's voices in the corridors of power remain disproportionately few. Major challenges, including traditional gender roles, deep-seated patriarchal attitudes, significant safety concerns, and systemic exclusion within political parties, weaken the very foundation of a truly representative democracy. These factors affect not only the aspirations of individual women but also the collective progress of the broader community of women in India, stalling national efforts toward achieving genuine gender equality.

At the same time, meaningful change is underway. At the grassroots level, roughly 1.4 million women now serve as elected representatives in the Panchayati Raj institutions, close to 46 per cent of all such representatives, according to the Ministry of Panchayati Raj. Recent legislative efforts, above all the landmark Women's Reservation Bill enacted as the Constitution (106th Amendment) Act 2023, mark important milestones in our national progress. Furthermore, prominent leaders such as former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and current President Droupadi Murmu powerfully demonstrate what is possible when women rise to the highest positions of power. This paper seeks to bring greater awareness to the barriers hindering women in Indian politics, with the hope that a clearer understanding will empower more women to step forward and inspire future generations. Breaking the glass ceiling is not merely a matter of fairness or equality: it is about unlocking the full potential of India's democracy and shaping a future where the leaders of our nation truly reflect the people they serve.

2. Root Causes of the Gender Imbalance

The low participation of women in Indian politics is shaped by a complex interplay of historical, cultural, and structural barriers. These root causes not only discourage women from entering politics but also significantly limit their ability to succeed once they are in the arena. As the world's largest and one of its most resilient parliamentary democracies, India counts hundreds of millions of women among its citizens and roughly half of its electorate. Despite this, their representation in Parliament has seen only halting improvement over the decades. After the 2024 general election, women held 74 of the 543 seats in the 18th Lok Sabha, about 13.6 per cent, actually a decline from the record of 78 women members elected in 2019. That level sits well below the global average, which the Inter-Parliamentary Union puts at just over 27 per cent of national parliamentary seats as of early 2025. Political theorist Anne Phillips has argued that women "bring different skills to politics and provide role models for future generations" and that their inclusion appeals to a fundamental justice between the sexes, as summarised in the Observer Research Foundation's analysis of women in India's Parliament. Given these clear advantages, this begs the question: why does such a significant gender imbalance persist? The primary reasons are outlined below.

2.1 Historical and Cultural Norms

For centuries, traditional practices such as child marriage, the dowry system, and purdah, the veiling and seclusion of women, have confined women to the domestic sphere. Compounded by a pervasive lack of family support, these norms prevented many women from stepping into public life, cementing politics as a male-dominated domain. Historically, women's organised participation in Indian politics began with the freedom movement, led by iconic figures such as Rani Lakshmi Bai and Sarojini Naidu. However, even in the post-independence era, the representation of women remained troublingly low. It was not until the 1990s that economic liberalisation and the landmark 73rd Constitutional Amendment began to improve participation at the local level. The seminal Towards Equality report, prepared by the Committee on the Status of Women in India and submitted in 1974 and 1975, was one of the first comprehensive documents to expose how deeply entrenched cultural norms result in systemic discrimination in education and employment, which in turn leads to a lack of political leadership and participation by women.

2.2 Patriarchy, Perception, and Safety

Patriarchal attitudes continue to shape public and institutional perceptions of women's leadership capabilities. Politics is often culturally coded as masculine, an arena imagined to require aggression, ruthlessness, and stamina, qualities not traditionally stereotyped as feminine. Common refrains that paint politics as a "dirty game", rife with corruption and selfishness, further frame it as an unsuitable environment for women, who are often stereotyped as needing to be soft, sensitive, and emotional. Consequently, families, especially in rural areas, actively discourage their daughters from political involvement due to grave concerns about their reputation, safety, or social stigma. In the digital age, these threats have intensified. Online harassment, including threats of death, rape, and physical violence against women in politics and public life, has become alarmingly common, as UN Women has documented. These psychological and physical challenges take a heavy toll, undermining women's confidence to contest elections or remain in office.

2.3 Party Bias, Media Portrayal, and Campaign Hurdles

Systemic bias is also evident within the structures of political parties. Parties often hesitate to nominate women for winnable seats, and when they do, it is frequently in constituencies with low chances of victory. This practice reflects tokenism rather than a genuine commitment to inclusion. The numbers underline the point: in 2024 only 797 women stood as candidates for the Lok Sabha, under 10 per cent of the total field. The media often perpetuates this bias by focusing on a female politician's appearance, family connections, or personality traits instead of her policies, qualifications, or leadership. Even accomplished and formidable leaders such as Mamata Banerjee have often been framed in these superficial terms rather than being judged on their political achievements.

Finally, the act of campaigning itself is fraught with hurdles. A successful campaign requires immense financial resources, extensive networks, and the ability to engage the public, all areas where women face systemic disadvantages due to the factors mentioned above. The World Economic Forum has noted that financial barriers in particular remain a decisive constraint on women who seek to enter and stay in politics. Seen against the global benchmark, where women hold just over a quarter of parliamentary seats worldwide and men still make up nearly three-quarters of legislators, India's figure of roughly one in seven members shows how far the gap remains from closing.

3. Consequences of Inequality

3.1 Weak Representation and Policy Gaps

The scarcity of women in positions of power directly leads to a democratic deficit in representation. When policymakers are predominantly male, they often overlook the everyday realities, needs, and priorities of over half the population. Political scientists have consistently emphasised the tangible benefits of increased participation by women in representative institutions. Research shows that when women participate meaningfully in governance, they bring a greater focus to critical issues such as healthcare, education, and social justice. Their absence leaves significant gaps in laws addressing childcare, gender-based violence, reproductive rights, and workplace equity. As a result, policy landscapes are largely shaped by male perspectives, which limits inclusivity and weakens democracy itself.

3.2 Slower Progress Toward Gender Equality

The lack of women in politics slows India's overall progress toward gender equality. Politics is not only about passing laws: it shapes the values, priorities, and cultural norms of a nation. Without a critical mass of women in positions of authority, patriarchal structures remain largely unchallenged, and vital goals such as gender equality are often relegated to secondary importance. International frameworks, including the Sustainable Development Goals, stress that women's leadership is a key catalyst for national progress and a sustainable future. Without more female voices in decision-making roles, the country stalls crucial cultural progress and change, keeping the wider issue of gender equality on the sidelines.

3.3 Fewer Role Models for the Next Generation

The scarcity of women in leadership positions creates a vacuum of role models for younger generations. When a young girl looks at the political landscape and sees few, if any, women leading, it sends a powerful message that politics is a space reserved for men. This lack of representation discourages them from considering political careers, shrinking the pipeline of future leaders. Visible role models are essential for breaking down stereotypes and normalising the idea of female leadership for aspiring young women. Without these inspiring figures to look up to, gender stereotypes remain unchallenged, and the cycle of underrepresentation continues.

4. Signs of Progress

4.1 Women's Rise in Panchayati Raj Institutions

The Panchayati Raj, India's system of rural local self-governance, has a three-tier structure designed to promote democratic decentralisation and grassroots development. The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts of 1992 were revolutionary in mandating reserved seats for women in these bodies. This has created a vital training ground for women leaders and directly challenges long-standing stereotypes about women's roles in politics. Today, according to the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, roughly 1.4 million women serve as elected representatives across the country, close to 46 per cent of all elected members, and 21 states have raised women's reservation in these bodies from one-third to 50 per cent. These women shape decisions on local education, healthcare, and village development, though researchers caution that the proxy phenomenon, in which male relatives exercise power in a woman's name, still limits how fully this representation translates into real authority.

4.2 The Women's Reservation Act (2023)

The Women's Reservation Bill, enacted in September 2023 as the Constitution (106th Amendment) Act and named the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, reserves one-third of the total seats in the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies for women, and marks a monumental turning point in India's parliamentary history. Its passage followed a journey of nearly three decades marked by resistance from male-dominated parties worried about losing influence, sparking intense debate and repeated disruptions in Parliament. The reservation is to remain in place for 15 years. Crucially, however, the Act does not take effect immediately: Article 334A ties its activation to a census conducted after the amendment came into force and a subsequent delimitation of constituencies, which means it is unlikely to shape the composition of Parliament before the 2029 general election. The law therefore represents a firm national commitment to dismantling structural gender barriers, but its promise remains, for now, deferred rather than delivered.

4.3 Women as Voters

Over the past few decades, there has been a remarkable increase in women's voter turnout during elections, progressively narrowing and in many states erasing the gender gap, and demonstrating their increasing political engagement. This surge in participation has encouraged political parties to shift some of their focus, creating manifestos and campaigns that address women-centric issues. This rising participation highlights women's growing role as equal and indispensable stakeholders in society and politics, even as their share of elected office lags far behind their share of the vote.

4.4 Women as Candidates

The number of women contesting elections has increased significantly since the 1950s. However, because success rates remain low and institutional hurdles such as a lack of party support and financial aid persist, many parties still hesitate to nominate women for key constituencies, and women made up under 10 per cent of Lok Sabha candidates in 2024. Despite these challenges, accomplished women political leaders such as Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman continue to break stereotypes and inspire change. Historical data shows a noticeable rise in women's political participation from the mid-1990s onward, likely influenced by early discussions of the Women's Reservation Bill, increased economic opportunities following the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, and the broader effects of globalisation.

4.5 Women in Parliament

Women's representation in the Indian Parliament has improved over the long run but still remains well below the global average of just over 27 per cent, and the 18th Lok Sabha of 2024 recorded a decline from the previous house. Tokenism often overshadows genuine inclusion, as parties may field women selectively to meet informal quotas. Nonetheless, the rise of strong women members of Parliament signals a gradual but definite movement toward more balanced leadership. Their presence adds essential perspectives to lawmaking and governance. This fight is not specific to India but is part of a worldwide, systemic challenge that societies everywhere must work to change.

4.6 Women as Political Workers

Beyond being candidates, women play a vital role as campaigners, organisers, and grassroots mobilisers. They are also often instrumental in appealing to female voters. The growing visibility of women in all facets of political work builds a strong foundation for future leaders. There has been increased participation of women in door-to-door canvassing, social media campaigns, and voter engagement drives. Their contributions often remain undervalued but are absolutely critical to democratic participation. By 2019, according to the Observer Research Foundation, women's presence in activities such as attending rallies and door-to-door campaigns had risen sharply over the preceding decades, making them a vital part of modern Indian politics.

5. The Way Forward

5.1 Political and Legal Reform

To create lasting and visible change, stronger political and legal reforms are needed to secure women's positions in politics. The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act is a prime example of legislation that addresses socio-political barriers by ensuring one-third of directly elected seats are filled by women, but its deferred timeline shows why follow-through matters as much as passage. In the interim, political parties could be legally mandated to meet a minimum quota for female candidates in elections, much as some already do voluntarily. Alongside this, stronger safety laws and electoral reforms can be enforced to create a more secure and equitable environment for women leaders and participants. Such legal measures would help dismantle the institutional barriers that have kept women on the sidelines for too long.

5.2 Education, Media, and Public Awareness

Education and public awareness campaigns are equally important for dismantling stereotypes and patriarchal norms. These campaigns are particularly crucial in rural areas, where structural barriers are more persistent and awareness may be limited. Schools and universities should incorporate robust civics and political education curricula to encourage more women to consider political participation. The media holds a powerful role in this transformation by highlighting women's success stories and shifting public perceptions of leadership. In today's world, media narratives can powerfully shape public opinion. The media must use its influence to encourage female participation, help normalise women's visibility in politics, and actively reduce bias in its reporting.

5.3 Leadership Development and Civil Society

To prepare women for leadership roles, civil society organisations, non-governmental organisations, and training institutes must step up. Capacity-building programmes can provide essential mentorship, skills training in public speaking and policy-making, and financial literacy for aspiring women leaders. Grassroots organisations play a crucial role in mobilising women from marginalised communities and encouraging their political participation. Leadership networks and peer-support systems can empower women to navigate barriers and overcome the persistent challenges of bias and exclusion. With strong public support, women can transition from being only voters and workers to becoming influential political leaders.

5.4 Economic and Institutional Support

One of the most significant barriers women face in politics is the lack of financial and institutional backing. Campaigning is resource-intensive, and women often lack access to adequate funding, powerful networks, and full-throated party support. Providing dedicated financing, structured mentorship programmes, and institutional support can help level the playing field. Institutional mechanisms, such as gender-sensitive party policies and transparent funding channels, would help ensure that women are not excluded simply because of unequal access to resources.

Conclusion

Over the years, women have steadily risen as voters, candidates, and leaders, yet they still remain severely underrepresented in the political landscape of India, and the fall in women's Lok Sabha seats between 2019 and 2024 is a sobering reminder that progress is neither automatic nor irreversible. Initiatives such as the 73rd and 74th Amendments and the historic Constitution (106th Amendment) Act of 2023 have opened doors previously sealed to women. However, progress cannot stop with legislation, and a law that will not take effect until the end of this decade cannot by itself change who sits in Parliament today. Women must be supported not just symbolically but with tangible resources, enhanced safety, comprehensive training, and steadfast institutional backing. The media must champion women leaders by focusing on their substance and achievements. Political parties must actively promote women based on merit rather than treating them as token figures to fill a quota. Civil society, too, has a profound responsibility to nurture the next generation of women in politics.

Equality in politics is not just a women's issue or a matter of democratic representation: it is a societal imperative that strengthens governance for all citizens. Merit, not just connections, must be the key determinant of political opportunity. India cannot afford to let half of its population remain on the margins of decision-making. True democracy will only be realised when women are not the exceptions in our halls of power, but an equal and integral force shaping our nation's future.

Sources

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