Equality | ISC Class 11 Political Science Notes

This note covers equality: why it matters, what it means and does not mean, equality of opportunity, natural and social inequalities, the four kinds of equality (legal, political, social and economic), how feminism, Marxism, socialism and liberalism view equality, and how equality can be promoted through formal equality, differential treatment and affirmative action.

Why does equality matter?

Equality is a powerful moral and political ideal that has guided human society for many centuries. It is implicit in all faiths that proclaim all human beings to be the creation of God.

As a political ideal, it holds that all human beings have an equal worth regardless of their colour, gender, race or nationality.

Human beings deserve equal consideration and respect because of their common humanity. This notion of a shared humanity lies behind ideas such as universal human rights and "crimes against humanity".

In the modern period, equality has been a rallying slogan against states and institutions that uphold inequalities of rank, wealth, status or privilege.

In the eighteenth century the French revolutionaries used the slogan "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity" against the landed feudal aristocracy and the monarchy. The demand was raised again in the anti-colonial struggles of Asia and Africa in the twentieth century.

It continues to be raised by groups such as women and dalits who feel marginalised. Today equality is embodied in the constitutions and laws of many countries.

Yet inequality is more visible than equality. Slums stand beside luxury housing, and schools with world-class facilities stand beside schools without drinking water or toilets.

Globally, the richest 50 individuals have a combined income greater than that of the poorest 40 crore people. This is the paradox of equality: almost everyone accepts the ideal, yet almost everywhere we meet inequality.

What does equality mean, and what does it not mean?

Distinctions between human beings on grounds of race and colour, such as separate drinking fountains for white and coloured people, appear unacceptable to most of us. They violate our intuitive sense that all human beings are entitled to the same respect and consideration.

However, treating people with equal respect does not mean treating them identically in every condition. The smooth functioning of society requires a division of work, and people often enjoy different status and rewards because of it.

A prime minister or an army general may have a special official rank without violating equality, provided the privileges are not misused.

The real question is which distinctions are acceptable. When people are treated differently just because they are born into a particular religion, race, caste or gender, we regard it as an unacceptable inequality.

A child born in a slum who is denied nutritious food or good education through no fault of his or her own suffers an unfair inequality.

People may pursue different goals and not all succeed equally: some become fine musicians or famous scientists, others are noted for hard work. The commitment to equality does not require eliminating all differences.

It requires that the treatment we receive and the opportunities we enjoy are not pre-determined by birth or social circumstance.

What is equality of opportunity?

The concept of equality implies that all people are entitled to the same rights and opportunities to develop their skills and talents and to pursue their goals and ambitions. People will still differ in their choices, talents and success.

Just because only some become ace cricketers or successful lawyers, the society is not therefore unequal. What makes a society unequal and unjust is not the lack of equal status or wealth but inequality in people's access to basic goods such as education, health care and safe housing.

Definition: Equality of opportunity. Equality of opportunity is the condition in which every person has the same rights and a fair chance to develop his or her talents and pursue his or her goals, with access to basic goods such as education and health care.

Where equality of opportunity does not exist, a huge pool of potential talent tends to be wasted.

That is why many theorists today separate inequality that arises from our own choices from inequality that arises from the family or circumstances into which a person is born.

It is the second kind that advocates of equality wish to minimise and eliminate.

Natural versus social inequalities: how do they differ?

Political theory has sometimes distinguished natural inequalities from socially produced inequalities. Natural inequalities emerge from the different capabilities and talents with which people are born. Social inequalities are created by society, through unequal opportunities or the exploitation of some groups by others.

The distinction is useful but not always clear. Inequalities that have lasted a long time can be wrongly passed off as natural.

Women were long described as "the weaker sex" to justify denying them equal rights, and colonial masters claimed Black Africans were of lesser intelligence to justify slavery.

These claims are now seen as distinctions made by differences of power, not inborn characteristics.

Some natural differences are also no longer unalterable. Computers help blind people, and wheelchairs and artificial limbs help people with physical disabilities. The physicist Stephen Hawking could hardly move or speak yet made major contributions to science.

Denying disabled people help or fair reward on the ground that they are naturally less capable would seem unjust to most people today.

What is legal equality?

Legal equality, also called formal equality or equality before law, means that the law treats all citizens identically, without regard to caste, race, religion or gender. It is the first step towards equality, because inequalities everywhere have been protected by customs and legal systems.

In many countries the poor were not allowed to vote, women were barred from many professions, the caste system in India confined the "lower" castes to manual labour, and only some families could occupy high positions. Equality requires that the government and the law stop protecting such systems of privilege.

The Indian Constitution does this. Article 14 guarantees equality before the law and the equal protection of the laws. Article 15 prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Article 16 provides equality of opportunity in public employment, and Article 17 abolishes untouchability.

Legal equality is necessary but not sufficient. Considerable inequality can survive in countries that grant equal rights to all, because people differ in the resources and opportunities available to them in the social and economic spheres.

What is political equality?

In democratic societies, political equality normally means granting equal citizenship to all members of the state. Equal citizenship brings basic rights such as the right to vote and freedom of expression, movement, association and belief.

These rights enable citizens to develop themselves and take part in the affairs of the state. In India, political equality is secured through universal adult franchise under Article 326, so that every adult citizen's vote counts equally.

Political rights are legal rights, guaranteed by the constitution and laws. Because inequalities in the social and economic spheres limit how far people can actually use them, a demand is often made for equal opportunities, or for "a level playing field".

Political and legal equality may not by themselves build a just society, but they are an important component of it. They remove the legal hurdles that would otherwise exclude people from a voice in government.

What is social equality?

Social equality means that people belonging to different groups and communities have a fair and equal chance to compete for social goods and opportunities. Political equality removes legal barriers; social equality addresses the conditions under which people actually compete.

To achieve it, the effects of social and economic inequalities must be minimised and certain minimum conditions of life guaranteed to everyone: adequate health care, the opportunity for good education, adequate nourishment and a minimum wage, among other things.

Without these it is very hard for all members of society to compete on equal terms.

In India, a special problem comes not only from a lack of facilities but from customs in some groups. Women may not enjoy equal rights of inheritance, may face prohibitions on certain activities, or may be discouraged from higher education.

The state has a significant role here: it should make policies to prevent discrimination or harassment of women in public places or employment, and give incentives to open up education and professions to women.

Social groups and individuals also have a role in raising awareness and supporting those who want to exercise their rights.

What is economic equality?

At its simplest, economic inequality exists when there are significant differences in wealth, property or income between individuals or classes. It can be measured by the relative difference between the richest and poorest groups, or by the number of people living below the poverty line.

Absolute equality of wealth or income has probably never existed. Most democracies try instead to provide equal opportunities, believing that this gives people with talent and determination a chance to improve their condition. Inequalities between individuals may remain, but with sufficient effort a person can improve his or her position.

The Census of India 2011 showed how wide the gap can be: 55 per cent of rural families had an electricity connection against 93 per cent of urban families, and 35 per cent of rural families had tap water in the house against 71 per cent of urban ones.

Entrenched inequalities, which remain untouched over generations, are the most dangerous. If some classes enjoy wealth and the power that goes with it for generations while others stay poor, society divides along class lines.

Such divisions can breed resentment and violence, and the power of the wealthy can make reform difficult.

How do feminism, Marxism, socialism and liberalism view equality?

Feminism is a political doctrine of equal rights for women and men. Feminists hold that inequality between the sexes is the result of patriarchy, a social, economic and cultural system that values men more than women and gives men power over women.

They distinguish "sex", the biological difference, from "gender", the roles society assigns; most gender inequality is produced by society, not nature.

Feminists also point to the double burden: most women work outside the home yet remain solely responsible for housework, while having little say in decisions in the public domain.

Marx, the nineteenth-century thinker, argued that the root cause of entrenched inequality was private ownership of important economic resources such as oil, land and forests. Such ownership gives the owning class both wealth and political power. Marxists and socialists therefore seek public control over essential resources, going beyond equal opportunities.

Socialism favours government regulation, planning and control in key areas such as education and health care.

The Indian socialist Rammanohar Lohia identified five inequalities to be fought simultaneously: between man and woman, by skin colour, by caste, of colonial rule, and economic inequality.

Adding revolutions for civil liberties and for non-violence, he called these seven the Sapta Kranti.

Liberals uphold competition in free and fair conditions as the most just and efficient way of distributing rewards.

They accept that the state may ensure a minimum standard of living and equal opportunities, but unlike socialists they do not see political, economic and social inequalities as necessarily linked.

For liberals the problem is not inequality as such but unjust and entrenched inequality.

How does the Indian Constitution go beyond formal equality?

Besides guaranteeing equality before law, the Indian Constitution asks the state to work actively for social and economic equality. It does this mainly through the Directive Principles of State Policy, which are not enforceable in courts but are fundamental in the governance of the country.

Article 38 directs the state to strive to minimise inequalities in income and to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities. Article 39(d) directs the state to secure equal pay for equal work for both men and women.

Article 46 directs the state to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, in particular the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and to protect them from social injustice and exploitation.

The Fundamental Rights also allow differential treatment. Article 15(4) permits special provisions for socially and educationally backward classes and for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and Article 16(4) permits reservation in public appointments for backward classes that are not adequately represented.

In 2019 the 103rd Amendment added reservation of up to 10 per cent for economically weaker sections in education and public employment. It shows that the debate over whether to identify the deprived by economic criteria or by caste-based inequality continues to shape policy.

How can equality be promoted?

Societies have used three broad approaches (formal equality, differential treatment and affirmative action), which build on one another in these steps:

1. Establish formal equality: end legal and customary systems of privilege, so that the law treats everyone alike.
2. Identify the differences that block equal rights: recognise where some people cannot enjoy their rights without extra help.
3. Provide differential treatment where it is needed: for example, ramps for disabled people or protection for women working night shifts.
4. Use affirmative action against entrenched inequality: scholarships, hostels and, in India, reserved seats in education and jobs.
5. Review the measures over time: keep special assistance temporary and check that it does not create new structures of dominance.

Equality through differential treatment recognises that formal equality is necessary but not sufficient. Special ramps or travel protection should not be seen as infringements of equality but as its enhancement.

The women's movement learned this: in the nineteenth century women demanded the rights to vote, to receive degrees and to work, but as they entered the job market they found they also needed maternity leave and creches to use those rights.

Note: Treating everyone in an identical manner is not the same as treating everyone as equals. The second may sometimes need differential treatment, but every such case needs justification, because differential treatment was also the basis of the caste system and apartheid.

Is affirmative action consistent with equality?

Affirmative action rests on the idea that formal equality by law is not enough to remove deeply rooted inequality. Most such policies are designed to correct the cumulative effect of past inequalities.

They range from preferential spending on scholarships and hostels to special consideration in admissions and jobs; India has relied mainly on reservations.

The policy is defended because certain groups have been victims of prejudice, exclusion and segregation and cannot be expected to compete on equal terms at once. Special help is meant to be a temporary, time-bound measure that lets them overcome existing disadvantages and then compete equally.

Critics invoke the principle of equality itself. They call reservations a form of reverse discrimination that arbitrarily denies others their right to equal treatment and may reinforce caste and racial prejudices by drawing distinctions on those grounds.

The debate today is less about the goal of equal opportunity than about the policies to achieve it: whether to reserve seats or to provide special facilities from an early age, and whether to identify the deprived by an economic criterion or by caste-based social inequality.

Policies must finally be judged by whether they make society more egalitarian and fair to all.

Glossary

• Equality: the ideal that all human beings have equal worth and deserve equal consideration and respect.
• Equality of opportunity: the same rights and a fair chance for everyone to develop talents and pursue goals.
• Natural inequality: inequality arising from the different capabilities and talents people are born with.
• Social inequality: inequality created by society through unequal opportunity or exploitation.
• Legal equality: equality before law, under which the law treats all citizens identically.
• Political equality: equal citizenship, with equal rights such as the vote and freedom of expression.
• Social equality: a fair and equal chance for all groups to compete, backed by minimum conditions of life.
• Economic equality: the reduction of significant differences in wealth, property or income between individuals or classes.
• Entrenched inequality: inequality that remains largely untouched over generations.
• Patriarchy: a social, economic and cultural system that values men more than women and gives men power over women.
• Affirmative action: positive measures to correct the cumulative effect of past inequalities.
• Sapta Kranti: Rammanohar Lohia's seven revolutions against five inequalities and for civil liberties and non-violence.

Common errors and misconceptions

• Misconception: equality means treating everyone in exactly the same way. Correct: equality means equal respect and consideration; sometimes people must be treated differently so that they can enjoy equal rights.
• Misconception: equality requires removing all differences of income and status. Correct: it requires that treatment and opportunities are not pre-determined by birth or social circumstance.
• Misconception: legal equality is enough to make a society equal. Correct: formal equality is necessary but not sufficient, because social and economic inequalities limit how people can use their rights.
• Misconception: all inequalities between men and women are natural. Correct: feminists distinguish sex from gender and show that most gender inequality is produced by society.
• Misconception: socialists and liberals agree that all inequalities are linked. Correct: socialists see economic inequality supporting other inequalities, while liberals treat each sphere separately.
• Misconception: affirmative action is meant to be permanent. Correct: it is expected to be a temporary, time-bound measure until deprived groups can compete on equal terms.

Exam-style questions with model answers

Q1. Name the Indian socialist who spoke of the Sapta Kranti. [1 mark]

1. Rammanohar Lohia, who called the struggle against five inequalities and for civil liberties and non-violence the seven revolutions.

Q2. What is meant by legal equality? [2 marks]

1. Legal equality, or equality before law, means the law treats all citizens identically, without regard to caste, race, religion or gender.
2. In India, Article 14 guarantees equality before the law and the equal protection of the laws.

Q3. Distinguish between natural and social inequalities. [2 marks]

1. Natural inequalities arise from the different capabilities and talents people are born with and are generally assumed to be unalterable.
2. Social inequalities are created by society, through unequal opportunities or exploitation, and can be changed.

Q4. Explain political, social and economic equality. [4 marks]

1. Political equality means equal citizenship, with equal rights such as the vote and freedom of expression, movement and association.
2. Social equality gives all groups a fair chance to compete, backed by minimum conditions such as health care, education, nourishment and a minimum wage.
3. Economic equality means reducing significant differences in wealth, property or income between individuals or classes.
4. All three are needed, since political rights mean little without social opportunities and economic security.

Q5. Why are entrenched inequalities considered dangerous for a society? [4 marks]

1. Entrenched inequalities remain largely untouched over generations.
2. Classes that hold wealth and the power that goes with it for generations divide society from those who stay poor.
3. Such class differences can give rise to resentment and violence.
4. The power of the wealthy classes can make it difficult to reform society and make it more open and egalitarian.

Q6. "Formal equality is necessary but not sufficient." Discuss with reference to differential treatment and affirmative action. [8 marks]

1. Formal equality ends legal and customary systems of privilege, so that the law treats everyone alike.
2. The Indian Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth and abolishes untouchability.
3. Yet inequality survives where people lack the resources and opportunities to use their rights.
4. Sometimes people must be treated differently to enjoy equal rights, such as ramps for disabled people or protection for women working at night.
5. Such differential treatment enhances equality rather than infringing it.
6. Affirmative action, such as scholarships, hostels and reservations, corrects the cumulative effect of past inequalities.
7. Critics call reservations reverse discrimination that may reinforce caste prejudice, so the debate is about the right policies.
8. Differential treatment is justified only as a temporary means to a just and egalitarian society.

Q7. State the view of feminists on inequality between men and women. [4 marks]

1. Feminism is a doctrine of equal rights for women and men.
2. Feminists trace inequality to patriarchy, which values men more and gives them power over women.
3. They distinguish sex, the biological difference, from gender, the roles society assigns.
4. They hold that most gender inequality, including women's double burden, is produced by society and can be eliminated.

Key takeaways

• Equality holds that all human beings have equal worth and deserve equal respect because of their common humanity.
• Equality does not mean identical treatment; it means opportunities not pre-determined by birth or social circumstance.
• The distinction between natural and social inequalities is useful but has often been misused to justify unjust treatment.
• Legal equality, or equality before law, is protected in India by Articles 14 to 17 and is necessary but not sufficient.
• Political equality is equal citizenship with equal rights, secured in India through universal adult franchise.
• Social equality needs minimum conditions such as health care, education, nourishment and a minimum wage.
• Economic inequality is measured by the gap between rich and poor; entrenched inequality is the most dangerous kind.
• Feminists blame patriarchy, Marxists blame private ownership of resources, and liberals favour fair competition.
• Equality is promoted through formal equality, differential treatment and affirmative action, each needing careful justification.

Test yourself

Which slogan did the French revolutionaries use?

They used the slogan "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity" against the feudal aristocracy and the monarchy.

Does equality require identical treatment of everyone?

No. It requires equal respect, and sometimes people must be treated differently so that they can enjoy equal rights.

What makes a society unequal and unjust, according to the idea of equal opportunity?

Inequality in people's access to basic goods such as education, health care and safe housing, not differences in status or wealth alone.

What does Article 15 of the Indian Constitution prohibit?

Article 15 prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

What is the double burden that feminists describe?

Women working outside the home while remaining solely responsible for housework, with little say in public decisions.

What did Marx see as the root cause of entrenched inequality?

Private ownership of important economic resources such as oil, land and forests, which gives owners wealth and political power.

Why do critics call reservations reverse discrimination?

Because they say reservations arbitrarily deny other sections their right to equal treatment and may reinforce caste prejudices.

Give one example of differential treatment that enhances equality.

Special ramps in public buildings, which give disabled people an equal chance to enter them.