From the Rulers to the Ruled: Types of Governments | CBSE Class 7 Civics Notes

This note covers government functions, representation, democratic principles, direct and representative democracy, parliamentary and presidential systems, early republics, monarchy, theocracy, dictatorship, oligarchy, and the importance and challenges of democracy.

What does a government do for people?

A government runs a country by making rules, putting them into practice and ensuring that they are followed. Its responsibilities connect public order and security with the everyday needs of people. Welfare means people's well-being and the improvement of their lives.

Responsibilities in everyday life

• Law and order: maintaining rules and order in society.
• Peace and security: ensuring stability and safety for people.
• Relations with other countries: managing a country's dealings with other countries.
• National defence: protecting the country against external threats.
• Essential goods and services: providing education, healthcare and infrastructure, meaning basic facilities used by society.
• Economic management: managing the economy and its activities.
• Public welfare: working to improve people's lives.

These responsibilities show why government concerns more than rulers and their power. Education and healthcare affect daily life, while defence and relations with other countries concern security beyond the country. Maintaining order supports peace and stability within society.

India has a democratic government, meaning a government whose power comes from the people. Many countries have democratic governments, while some have other forms. Even democratic governments differ in their structures and in how they function.

The collage combines photographs and drawings, including a train, road construction, healthcare, soldiers, a classroom and a court building. These images connect government responsibilities with services and security.

See Fig. 9.2 in your NCERT textbook

How does the school committee example explain representation?

A representative is someone chosen to act or decide on behalf of another person or group. Representation allows members of a group to have their concerns expressed by people they choose. It helps explain how people participate in a democratic government.

The problem of choosing a committee

A school needs to organise timetables, sports, meals, assembly speakers and activities. The Head Teacher proposes a Student Committee to help make rules, implement them and ensure that they are followed. Students disagree over who should join it.

Naghma favours Grade 12 because its students are the most senior. Shobha favours Grade 11 because Grade 12 students will soon leave. Gurpreet asks how students from just one grade could understand the problems faced by other grades.

The third method is democratic because students choose their representatives. The committee includes representatives from each grade, rather than leaving responsibility with a single grade. Choosing someone who can express a class's needs gives representation a practical purpose.

Note: The school committee illustrates representation. Class representatives are different from Members of Parliament and Members of the Legislative Assembly, who serve in national and state law-making bodies.

What are the three functions of government?

Government needs rules, arrangements to carry them out and a way to ensure compliance. These responsibilities are its legislative, executive and judicial functions. Learning the function first helps distinguish the work from the body that performs it.

Functions and institutions

An organ of government is a part of government with particular responsibilities. The legislature makes laws; the executive carries them out. An independent judiciary protects citizens' fundamental rights, meaning basic rights protected in a democracy, and ensures that citizens and government bodies follow laws.

The same broad functions can be arranged differently. They may be performed by independent bodies or by the same body. Consequently, identifying the three functions does not by itself tell us which form of government a country has.

Definition: Separation of power means that the legislature, executive and judiciary work independently and do not interfere in one another's functions.

The names of institutions also differ. India's legislature is called Parliament; the legislature of the United States of America, abbreviated as USA, is called Congress. Both names refer to law-making bodies, although their structures and relationships with the executive differ.

What questions help us compare governments?

Governments develop over time. Countries have different histories, cultures and aspirations, meaning hopes about their future. These differences help explain why governments vary. Four questions provide a useful way to compare their authority, formation, institutions and purposes.

Authority, formation, structure and goals

• Who gives the government authority? Authority means the power to govern. In India's democracy, it comes from the people. In a theocracy, a government ruled by religion and religious leaders, religious beliefs and religious leadership supply authority.
• How is the government formed? Democracies usually form governments through some kind of election. In kingdoms, usually someone within the ruling family continues to rule and decides how government is organised.
• What are its parts and their functions? Law-making, implementation and judicial work can be organised in different ways. A constitution is the country's set of fundamental rules; in most democracies these rules are written down.
• What goals does it serve? India's government is designed to work towards equality and prosperity for all. Some other governments may be designed only for the prosperity of particular families or groups.

These four aspects are major differences, but other differences are possible. The method of election, for example, can vary even between democracies. Sharing a broad description does not mean that two countries have identical arrangements.

A government's values and ideals are the principles and goals it is intended to follow. Distinguishing those goals from actual achievements matters: a government can be designed for public welfare while still facing problems in fulfilling that purpose.

Which principles give democracy its meaning?

Democracy means rule of the people. The people of the country are the source of its power and authority. Democratic institutions should express this principle through equality, freedom, representation, voting rights, protected rights and an independent judiciary.

Six fundamental principles

• Equality: everyone has the right to equal treatment, equal access to facilities such as education and health, and equality before the law.
• Freedom: citizens have the right to make choices and express opinions.
• Representative participation: people choose representatives through elections, and elected representatives become part of the legislature.
• Universal adult franchise: every citizen above a certain age has the right to vote for representatives. Franchise and suffrage both mean the right to vote.
• Fundamental rights: basic rights, including equality, freedom of speech and expression, and protection against exploitation, are provided and protected.
• Independent judiciary: a judiciary independent of the executive and legislature protects rights and ensures that citizens and government bodies follow laws.

Exploitation means taking unfair advantage of people. Protection against it is one of the rights associated with democracy. An independent judiciary matters because government institutions, as well as citizens, must follow the law.

Ideals that developed over time

India provided universal adult franchise from the beginning of its republic in 1950. A republic has an elected head of state rather than a hereditary monarch, a king or queen whose position passes within a family. Women in Switzerland gained voting rights only in 1971.

Effective universal adult suffrage developed in the United Kingdom, abbreviated as UK, in 1928 and in the USA by 1965. A country's adoption of democracy therefore does not mean it already had every democratic principle understood today.

Note: These principles are ideals. Not all democracies are able to put them into practice, but citizens need to keep these ideals in view.

How do direct and representative democracy differ?

In direct democracy, citizens participate directly in all decisions about rules, regulations and government functions. In representative democracy, people elect representatives through universal adult franchise. People do not directly govern, but the government is always answerable to them.

Participation and practicality

Some kinds of direct democracy are followed in a few countries, such as Switzerland. This form is very difficult to carry out in practice, particularly in larger countries. The school committee example illustrates the problem of involving everyone in every decision and task.

Most democracies today are representative democracies. Accountability means that the government must answer to the people who elected it. Elections let people choose representatives and later express changes in their choices. They occur at regular, fixed intervals.

India has general elections every five years, while the USA has them every four years. The election cycle provides a way for people to change representatives when the government does not perform its functions properly.

How electoral accountability works

1. People choose representatives through elections based on universal adult franchise.
2. Representatives take part in governing, while the government remains answerable to the people.
3. People assess whether government is performing its functions and protecting their rights.
4. Through elections, people can change their representatives and express changes in their choices.

The development of democracy has taken different paths. The following dates identify when democracy was established in these countries; they do not show when every democratic right became effective.

Keep India's two dates distinct: 1947 marks the establishment of democracy, while 1950 marks the beginning of the Indian republic and universal adult franchise from that beginning.

How do parliamentary and presidential democracies work?

Parliamentary democracy and presidential democracy are two forms of representative democracy. Their central difference concerns the executive's relationship with the legislature, including how the executive takes office and whether it depends on legislative support.

Parliamentary democracy

In a parliamentary democracy, members of the executive are also part of the legislature. In India, the prime minister and the council of ministers, the ministers who form the executive with the prime minister, are also members of Parliament.

People elect the legislature rather than the executive. Selected members of the legislature become ministers. The council of ministers is accountable to the legislature and continues while it has the legislature's confidence, meaning its support. In India, this means the confidence of the Lok Sabha.

Presidential democracy

In a presidential democracy, the executive operates independently of the legislature. The president is elected by the people and does not need the confidence of the legislature to remain in the position. This differs from the council of ministers' dependence on legislative confidence in a parliamentary system.

Most democratic legislatures have an Upper House and a Lower House, meaning two parts of the law-making body. In most countries, the Lower House is directly elected and generally more powerful; the Upper House is formed by election or nomination, meaning selection for membership.

India's Lower House is the Lok Sabha and its Upper House is the Rajya Sabha. The following comparison sets out different arrangements. The USA and Australia call their Upper House the Senate and their Lower House the House of Representatives.

In countries such as India, states including Rajasthan and Kerala have their own governments. These are not completely independent: they remain governed by the larger national government, the Union Government of India.

What do early republics tell us about participation?

A republic has an elected head of state rather than a hereditary monarch. Early examples show collective decision-making and elections, but they should not be assumed to have provided the same participation as modern universal adult franchise.

Vajji and Uttaramerur

At least two of ancient India's mahājanapadas, or large states, had republican arrangements. In the Vajji, also called Vṛiji, mahājanapada, the Lichchhavi clan practised collective decision-making. Leaders were chosen for merit rather than birth, and elections filled important positions.

Representatives of different clans met regularly to discuss problems and work out solutions for people's welfare. Such states are described as early republics. Here, merit refers to a person's ability or suitability, rather than belonging to a ruling family by birth.

The Uttaramerur inscriptions in Tamil Nadu provide another example of participation. These written records from the Chola period, in the 10th century CE, meaning Common Era, describe elections to the village sabhā, a local administrative body.

They give details of sealed ballot boxes, members' qualifications, duties and grounds for dismissal. A ballot box holds votes cast in an election. Members found to have engaged in corruption, meaning dishonest misuse of a position or power, would be removed immediately.

Limits on participation elsewhere

Rome and Greece had republics in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, meaning Before Common Era. In some Greek regions, free men could vote, but women, workers and slaves could not. A slave was treated as property and forced to work for and obey another person.

In other areas, only a small privileged group could vote or make decisions. These examples show why collective government and widespread participation need to be examined separately: an early republic could include elections while excluding many people from voting.

How do monarchies differ, and what was expected of kings?

A monarchy is government by a monarch, meaning a king or queen. Monarchies are usually hereditary; typically, the ruling monarch's eldest son becomes the next king. Sovereign power indicates independence from external influence.

Kingship and duties in India

Kings in the mahājanapadas were guided by assemblies called the sabhā or samiti and were expected to take their advice seriously. As empires expanded, kings gained immense power but relied on ministers and officials. In many cases, they also sought advice from learned scholars.

In many parts of India, the king's power was neither absolute nor beyond question. Rājadharma meant ruling according to dharma, the moral duties guiding conduct, and ensuring everyone's welfare. This was an ideal that kings did not necessarily achieve.

Some kings used power to subjugate people, meaning to control them by force and make them obey. In some parts of the world, kings made laws, enforced them and decided punishments. In some cases, they claimed divine power from God.

In the Mahābhārata, Bhīṣhma teaches Yudhiṣṭhira that people's welfare should be a ruler's highest priority. The ruler should apply laws without bias, consult wise advisers and avoid attachment to power. Authority is temporary and bound by dharma.

Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī tells how King Chandrāpīḍa wanted to build a temple where a cobbler's hut stood. The king blamed builders for failing to seek permission, respectfully requested the hut and paid compensation. The story illustrates respect for a subject's home and dignity.

Absolute and constitutional monarchy

In an absolute monarchy, the monarch controls law-making, enforcement and adjudication, meaning judging disputes. Saudi Arabia is an example. Its king governs according to Islamic law and appoints an advisory council, but is not bound by that council's advice.

In a constitutional monarchy such as Britain, the monarch has nominal power, meaning power in name, while elected institutions exercise governing power. Parliament exercises legislative power; the prime minister and council of ministers exercise executive power. Britain is therefore also a parliamentary democracy.

What is a theocracy?

A theocracy is a government ruled by religious rules and religious leaders. Religious beliefs and the head of a religious institution provide its source of authority. This differs from democracy's principle that governing authority comes from the people.

Iran's combination of institutions

The Islamic Republic of Iran combines elements of theocratic and democratic governance. Its constitution rests on the fundamental principles of Islam, its official religion. Its political arrangements include both a religious leader with ultimate authority and elected institutions.

The Supreme Leader has ultimate authority over the legislature, executive and judiciary. A group of Islamic clerics, or religious leaders, selects the Supreme Leader, whose term is for life. An elected president and parliament handle everyday governance.

The republic's intended goal is a society based on Islamic norms, meaning religiously grounded rules and standards. Afghanistan and Vatican City are other examples of theocracies. The existence of a president or parliament therefore does not, by itself, establish that ultimate authority comes from the people.

To understand Iran's arrangement, distinguish everyday administration from ultimate authority. The elected president and parliament have governing roles, while the Supreme Leader stands above the three organs of government. Both elements belong in an explanation of its political system.

What is dictatorship, and how can it affect daily life?

A dictatorship places absolute power in one person or a small group, without limits imposed by a constitution or law. The examples of Adolf Hitler and Idi Amin show how concentrated power can expose people to violence and forced displacement.

Hitler and Idi Amin

After Adolf Hitler became Germany's Chancellor in 1933, he passed laws giving himself full power and eliminated political opposition. He believed Germany should dominate people he regarded as inferior. These beliefs supported persecution and destructive rule.

Hitler was responsible for the killing of at least six million Jews, known as the Holocaust, as well as hundreds of thousands of Roma and other groups. World War II, from 1939 to 1945, brought immense loss of lives and property across many countries.

Idi Amin was a military dictator in Uganda who was directly responsible for killing thousands of people. Many Indians whose ancestors had migrated there a few generations earlier were forced to flee the country.

The story of Shane

In the story, Shane lives in North Korea. The government determines the duration of his compulsory military service, regulates his haircut and clothing, and prevents his access to the global internet. It watches his actions and expects him to report rule-breaking.

Shane explains to a tourist that people want to try new hairstyles, but the government decides their haircuts. The story connects control of government with restrictions on ordinary choices. It contrasts with democratic freedom to make choices and express opinions.

Cartoon: Caricature of Idi Amin (NCERT Class 7 Figure 9.11). The drawing shows Amin wearing a military uniform crowded with medals and decorations. A caricature exaggerates aspects of someone's appearance to make the person look foolish or funny.

What is oligarchy, and can it affect a democracy?

An oligarchy is government in which a small, powerful group makes all important decisions. Usually, the group consists of wealthy families or influential people. The word comes from Greek: olígos means a few, and árkhō means to rule or command.

In some places in ancient Greece, aristocratic families ruled as oligarchies. Aristocratic families are families belonging to a privileged social group. The central feature is the concentration of decision-making power in a few hands.

Influence within democratic institutions

Political commentators, people who analyse political events and express opinions about them, have observed signs of oligarchy in even some democracies. This can happen when a small group of politicians and wealthy businesspeople has too much influence over governance.

This observation does not mean that every democracy is an oligarchy. It identifies a danger: institutions intended to represent people may be excessively influenced by a few. Equality and representative participation remain the democratic ideals against which that influence can be examined.

Cartoon: An oligarchic situation in 1889 (NCERT Class 7 Figure 9.13). The cartoon shows oversized figures with moneybag bodies labelled with the names of trusts standing behind much smaller senators in the USA's Senate chamber. At the upper left is a closed doorway labelled “People's Entrance”; the upper-right entrance is labelled “Entrance for Monopolists”. A wall notice describes the Senate as being of, by and for the monopolists. These labels and the figures' contrasting sizes suggest that wealthy business interests dominate the elected body.

A monopolist controls a particular trade or market. The cartoon's contrast in size presents an interpretation of concentrated influence. It is a cartoon about political power, rather than a photograph documenting the physical size or seating of actual participants.

Why does democracy matter despite its challenges?

In most countries, democracy is considered a better form of government than other forms. Its importance lies in people's choices, rights and ability to hold government accountable. Its values and ideals should direct government towards the well-being of all people.

Freedom, rights and accountability

In a genuine democracy, people can choose how to live, what to say, what to wear, which beliefs to follow and how to express themselves. These freedoms apply until and unless they harm someone else's rights. Freedom therefore includes respect for the rights of others.

People choose their government. It is accountable for protecting rights and responsible for providing basic needs. Elections allow people to replace representatives when government fails to perform its functions properly, providing a continuing check on what it does.

Hurdles to democratic ideals

Democracies also face serious problems. Corruption can obstruct public welfare. Wealth disparity means unequal wealth among people. Excessive control by a few can weaken democratic institutions.

Other hurdles include the erosion of judicial independence and the manipulation of information channels, meaning interference with the information people receive. These problems can prevent a democracy from realising its ideals even when democratic institutions exist.

Vigilance means staying alert to such problems. Citizens need to keep democratic ideals in view, examine government performance and use their ability to choose representatives. Recognising problems is part of understanding democracy's demands, alongside recognising the rights it promises.

The central distinction is between having democratic arrangements and fulfilling democratic ideals. Elections, protected rights and independent institutions matter, while equality and welfare require continuing attention. Not all democracies succeed in putting every principle into practice.

Glossary

• Government — The body that runs a country by making rules, implementing them and ensuring that they are followed.
• Democracy — Rule of the people, in which the people supply the government's power and authority.
• Representative — A person chosen to act or make decisions on behalf of another person or group.
• Legislature — The organ of government responsible for making the laws under which the country is governed.
• Executive — The organ of government responsible for implementing laws and administering the country according to them.
• Independent judiciary — A judiciary independent of the executive and legislature that protects rights and ensures observance of laws.
• Constitution — The fundamental rules that set out how the country's government is to work.
• Universal adult franchise — The right of every citizen above a certain age to vote and choose representatives.
• Accountability — The requirement that a democratic government answer to the people who elected it.
• Republic — A form of government with an elected head of state rather than a hereditary monarch.
• Monarchy — Government by a king or queen whose position is usually inherited within the royal family.
• Constitutional monarchy — A monarchy in which the monarch has nominal power while elected institutions exercise governing power.
• Theocracy — A form of government in which religious rules and religious leaders govern the country.
• Dictatorship — Government in which one person or a small group has absolute power without constitutional or legal limits.
• Oligarchy — Government in which a small powerful group, usually wealthy families or influential people, makes important decisions.

Common errors and misconceptions

• Misconception: Every democracy works in exactly the same way. Correct: Democracies share fundamental ideals but differ in their formation, institutions and functioning.
• Misconception: Democracy automatically achieves equality and freedom. Correct: These are ideals that not all democracies can put into practice; citizens need to keep them in view.
• Misconception: Every monarch holds absolute governing power. Correct: Britain's constitutional monarch has nominal power, while Parliament and the prime minister-led council of ministers exercise governing powers.
• Misconception: People directly elect India's executive in its parliamentary system. Correct: People elect the legislature, and selected members become ministers; the council needs the Lok Sabha's confidence.
• Misconception: An early republic necessarily allowed everyone to vote. Correct: In some Greek regions, free men voted but women, workers and slaves could not.
• Misconception: Rājadharma proves that all kings ensured public welfare. Correct: Welfare under rājadharma was an ideal that kings did not necessarily achieve.
• Misconception: Democratic freedom allows a person to harm other people's rights. Correct: Freedom to make everyday choices applies until and unless it harms someone else's rights.
• Misconception: Oligarchic influence cannot occur in a democracy. Correct: Political commentators have observed signs of oligarchy in some democracies where a few politicians and wealthy businesspeople have excessive influence.

Exam-style questions with model answers

Q1. A government makes laws and then implements them through administration. Name and explain these two functions. [2 marks]

1. The legislative function is making laws that provide the framework for running the country.
2. The executive function is implementing those laws and administering the country according to them.

Q2. A school considers three committee methods: everyone joins; the Head Teacher selects members; or every grade elects a representative to express its needs. Everyone joining makes decisions difficult, while selection leaves many students without a voice. Explain three advantages of the elected method using this information. [3 marks]

1. Each grade can choose its own representative, giving students a role in selecting the committee instead of leaving selection entirely to the Head Teacher.
2. Representatives can express their grades' needs, so the committee includes voices from different grades rather than relying on one grade's understanding.
3. A representative committee avoids making every student a member, addressing the stated difficulty of reaching decisions when everyone joins.

Q3. In India's parliamentary system, people elect the legislature; selected legislators become ministers; ministers are also legislators; and the council continues while it has the Lok Sabha's confidence. In a presidential system, people elect the president, the executive works independently of the legislature, and the president does not need legislative confidence. Explain three differences. [3 marks]

1. In India's parliamentary system, people elect the legislature and selected legislators become ministers. In a presidential system, the people elect the president.
2. Parliamentary ministers are also members of the legislature. In a presidential system, the executive works independently of the legislature.
3. India's council of ministers depends on the Lok Sabha's confidence. A president in the presidential system does not need legislative confidence to hold the position.

Q4. Saudi Arabia's king controls law-making, enforcement and adjudication, and need not follow his advisory council's advice. In Britain, the monarch has nominal power, the elected Parliament makes laws, and the prime minister-led council exercises executive power. Classify each monarchy and compare their law-making and executive arrangements in four points. [4 marks]

1. Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy because the king controls law-making, enforcement and adjudication, giving him complete governing power.
2. Britain is a constitutional monarchy because its monarch has nominal power while elected institutions exercise governing powers.
3. Law-making rests with the monarch in the Saudi Arabian example, whereas Britain's Parliament exercises legislative power.
4. The Saudi king governs with advice he need not follow; Britain's executive power belongs to the prime minister-led council of ministers.

Q5. Democratic ideals include equal treatment, equality before the law and equal access to education and health; freedom of choices and opinions; elected representation; voting rights for every citizen above a certain age; protected fundamental rights; and an independent judiciary that protects rights and ensures everyone, including government, follows laws. Explain these six principles in six separate points. [6 marks]

1. Equality means that every person should receive equal treatment, have equal access to facilities such as education and health, and be equal before the law.
2. Freedom means that citizens have the right to make their own choices and express their opinions about matters affecting their lives.
3. Representative participation gives people the right to choose representatives through elections, with elected representatives becoming part of the legislature.
4. Universal adult franchise gives every citizen above a certain age the right to vote and participate in choosing representatives.
5. Fundamental rights protect citizens' basic rights. Their protection is a democratic ideal alongside the opportunity to participate in government.
6. An independent judiciary protects those rights and ensures that the law applies to citizens as well as the different parts of government.

Q6. In the story of Shane, the government determines how long he serves in the military, regulates haircuts and clothing, prevents global internet access, watches his actions and expects him to report rule-breaking. Identify five restrictions on his everyday life using only these details. [5 marks]

1. Shane cannot decide when to finish compulsory military service because the government determines its duration, limiting his control over this part of his life.
2. He cannot freely choose his appearance: the rules govern both the haircut he keeps and the clothes he is expected to wear.
3. He cannot access the global internet, so this route to information about the world beyond his country is unavailable to him.
4. The government watches his every action closely, placing his everyday conduct under continuing observation rather than leaving it outside government scrutiny.
5. He is expected to report people who break the defined rules, making the monitoring of other people's conduct part of his everyday obligations.

Q7. Democratic ideals include public welfare, equality, prosperity for all and representation of people’s choices. An independent judiciary protects rights and ensures government follows laws. Five hurdles are corruption (dishonest misuse of power), wealth disparity (unequal wealth), excessive control by a few over democratic institutions, loss of judicial independence, and manipulation of information channels (interference with information people receive). Explain these five hurdles without adding examples. [5 marks]

1. Corruption involves dishonest misuse of power or position. It can obstruct a government's work towards public welfare and the ideals it is intended to uphold.
2. Wealth disparity means unequal wealth among people. It is a hurdle when a democracy seeks to realise equality and prosperity for all.
3. Excessive control by a few concentrates influence over democratic institutions, creating difficulties for the ideal that government should represent the people's choices.
4. Loss of judicial independence weakens the independent institution meant to protect fundamental rights and ensure that government bodies follow the law.
5. Manipulating information channels interferes with the information people receive. It is among the problems that can hinder the achievement of democratic ideals.

Q8. What do the years 1947 and 1950 mark in India's democratic development? State one point for each year. [2 marks]

1. 1947 marks the establishment of democracy in India.
2. 1950 marks the beginning of the Indian republic, which provided universal adult franchise from that beginning.

Key takeaways

• Government maintains order and security, provides essential services, manages economic activities and works for people's welfare.
• The legislative function makes laws, the executive implements them, and the judicial function ensures that laws are followed.
• Democracy draws authority from the people and rests on ideals of equality, freedom, representation, voting rights and protected rights.
• Direct democracy involves citizens in decisions directly; representative democracy uses elected representatives who remain answerable to the people.
• India's parliamentary executive depends on the Lok Sabha's confidence; a presidential executive does not need legislative confidence.
• A monarchy may be absolute or constitutional; Britain's constitutional monarchy is also a parliamentary democracy.
• Theocracy draws authority from religion; dictatorship concentrates absolute power; oligarchy places important decisions with a small powerful group.
• Democratic principles are ideals that not all democracies achieve, so citizens must remain alert to obstacles and concentrated influence.

Test yourself

What gives a democratic government its authority?

The people of the country are the source of its power and authority.

What does accountability mean in a democracy?

It means that government is answerable to the people who elected it.

What makes direct democracy difficult, particularly in larger countries?

Involving all citizens directly in every decision and government function is very hard to carry out in practice.

Which body must have confidence in India's council of ministers?

The council of ministers continues while it has the confidence of the Lok Sabha.

How does a republic differ from hereditary monarchy?

A republic has an elected head of state, rather than a monarch who inherits the position.

What happened to corrupt members of the Uttaramerur village sabhā?

Members found to have engaged in corruption would be removed immediately from their positions.

What is the limit on freedom of everyday choices in a genuine democracy?

People can make their choices until and unless those choices harm someone else's rights.

Does the presence of democratic institutions guarantee that every democratic ideal is achieved?

No. Not all democracies put their ideals into practice, and problems such as corruption and concentrated influence can create hurdles.