Human Resources in India | ICSE Class 8 Geography Notes

This note covers people as resources, the distribution of India's population, village and town populations, the balance between females and males, education, health, work skills and the contribution of people to India's development.

Why are people considered human resources?

Human resources are people considered in terms of their abilities to develop and use resources. Natural things become useful resources through human needs, knowledge and effort. Healthy, educated and motivated people develop resources to meet their requirements.

A country's population means its people. Counting them tells us its population size, but a total cannot describe everything that people can do. Their education, health, skills and opportunities also matter when considering their contribution to society.

How do human abilities make resources useful?

Nature provides materials, but people recognise their usefulness and develop ways of using them. Human beings therefore have an active part in resource development. Their needs help determine what is useful, while their abilities help them put resources to use.

People also differ in age, educational level and sex. Their numbers and characteristics change over time. Studying human resources therefore involves both the number of people and the characteristics that affect their lives and work.

Definition: Population composition is the structure of a population, including characteristics such as age, sex, education, occupation, income and health. An occupation is the work a person does.

Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills and abilities developed in people through education, training and health care. Developing these capacities is called human capital formation. Education and medical care are important investments in people.

People also have value beyond their contribution to production. Human development concerns people's well-being and their ability to make choices they value. Basic education and health are important in themselves, even when they do not increase the amount of goods or services produced.

This distinction prevents a narrow view of people as workers alone. Understanding India's human resources involves asking where people live, what opportunities they have, how their capabilities develop and how improvements in their lives benefit society.

How is India's population distributed and measured?

Population distribution means the way people are spread across an area. India has a highly uneven distribution: some regions contain large concentrations of people, while other regions are much more sparsely populated. Sparsely populated means having relatively few people in an area.

Population density measures the number of people per unit area. It is normally expressed as persons per square kilometre. A square kilometre, written km², is the area of a square with sides one kilometre long.

How do distribution and density differ?

Distribution describes the pattern of settlement. Density relates the number of people to the land area they occupy. A population total and a density answer different questions, so a large total alone does not establish how densely an area is populated.

The Census is an official enumeration of the population. The following density figures refer to the 2011 Census period. They describe that historical population pattern and are expressed in persons per square kilometre.

The figures show wide differences within India. Arunachal Pradesh had a much lower density than Uttar Pradesh, Kerala or Tamil Nadu. The national figure is an average across the country; it does not mean that every square kilometre contained the same number of people.

The map uses dots, with one dot representing 200,000 persons. The dots form a much denser pattern across the northern plains than across much of the Himalayan region.

See Fig. 1.1 in your NCERT textbook

The shaded map groups areas by persons per square kilometre. Its key shows less than 100, 101 to 400, 401 to 800, 801 to 1200, and above 1201.

See Fig. 1.2 in your NCERT textbook

Read each map's key, the explanation of its symbols or shades, before interpreting it. The dot map and the shaded map communicate related information differently. Both represent 2011, including the boundaries used for that historical presentation.

What factors explain uneven population distribution in India?

India's population pattern reflects physical conditions, economic activities and the history of settlement. Physical factors are features of the natural environment, such as landforms, climate and water. Social and economic factors include facilities, employment and transport.

How do natural conditions influence settlement?

Topography means the form of the land surface. Plains provide suitable land for farming, manufacturing and services. The Ganga and Brahmaputra plains have fertile soils and dense populations, while the Himalayas have a sparse population.

Climate describes the long-term pattern of weather conditions. People usually avoid extreme climates that are very hot or very cold. Climate, terrain and water availability largely determine the broad pattern of population distribution.

Fresh water attracts settlement, and fertile soil supports farming. The North Indian Plains, river deltas and coastal plains contain higher proportions of population than many interior districts and mountain areas. A delta is a depositional landform at a river's mouth.

Natural resources also help explain concentrations away from the plains. Mineral and energy resources in Jharkhand have encouraged population concentration. Irrigation, the supply of water to crops, has supported increased concentration in parts of Rajasthan that were previously thinly populated.

How do facilities and employment influence settlement?

Areas with better housing, education and health facilities attract people; Pune is an example. Places of religious or cultural significance also attract people, as in Varanasi. Industrial areas provide employment opportunities, helping explain Mumbai's large concentration of population.

Industrialisation is the development of industry. Urbanisation involves the growth of towns and cities and their share of population. Industrial development and urbanisation draw people towards urban regions such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Bengaluru.

Migration means the movement of people into or out of an area. People may move within India in search of work, education or health facilities. Transport networks help connect settlements and influence the location of population concentrations.

Historical settlement matters too. River plains and coastal regions have long histories of settlement and transport development. Their population concentrations have remained high even where land and water resources show signs of deterioration.

How do rural and urban populations differ?

Rural population means people living in villages, while urban population means people living in towns and cities. This division describes place of residence. It helps us understand the social and economic characteristics of India's population.

In 2011, about 68.8 per cent of India's population lived in villages. The urban proportion was 31.16 per cent. These figures show that the rural population formed the larger share at that time. Per cent means out of every hundred.

Note: The rural figure is rounded to one decimal place and the urban figure to two decimal places. Keep the stated precision when using them; neither figure is a present-day estimate.

Is the rural share the same everywhere?

The rural population is unevenly distributed between and within states. Himachal Pradesh and Bihar had very high rural proportions in the 2011 pattern. Goa and Mizoram had only little over half their populations living in villages.

It is useful to distinguish a population share, the proportion of a total belonging to a group, from the group's actual number of people. A high rural share says that a large proportion lives in villages; it does not itself give the population total.

Why do people move towards towns and cities?

People may move from rural to urban areas in search of employment, education and health facilities. Such movement is called rural-urban migration. It changes where people live within the country and contributes to the concentration of people in urban areas.

The urban share of India's population has grown over the decades. Economic development and improvements in health and hygienic conditions have contributed to urban population growth. Urban population, like rural population, varies widely in its distribution across the country.

Rural and urban residence should be studied alongside education, health and occupation. Place of residence is one part of population composition. It cannot by itself tell us every person's skills, income or ability to contribute to development.

What does the sex ratio tell us about India's population?

The sex ratio is the number of females per 1,000 males in a given area at a specified time. It describes the numerical balance between females and males. The area, date and age coverage are essential parts of its meaning.

India's overall sex ratio in the 2011 Census was 943 females per 1,000 males. This means that females were fewer than males in the population as a whole at that time. It does not mean 943 females per 1,000 persons.

How should historical sex-ratio figures be read?

The child sex ratio refers here to children aged 0 to 6 years. Its population base is therefore different from that of the overall sex ratio. The two measures must be labelled separately rather than used as interchangeable descriptions.

Between the listed years, the overall ratio increased while the child ratio decreased. The different directions show why an improvement in the overall figure does not establish an improvement in every age group. Always identify which ratio a statement describes.

Sex ratio is an indicator of gender balance, meaning the numerical balance between females and males in the population. It is not a measure of how densely people occupy land, how many can read or write, or how many live in villages.

Population composition combines several measures because each describes a different feature. Sex ratio helps describe female-male balance; rural-urban shares describe residence; education and health describe other important aspects of people's lives and opportunities.

How do education and health develop human resources?

Education develops knowledge and the ability to understand changes in society. It helps people make better choices, stimulates new ideas and supports the adoption of new technologies. Its benefits extend beyond increased earning capacity.

Health care helps people maintain or regain health. Illness can interrupt work, particularly when a sick worker cannot obtain medical care. Expenditure on health therefore supports people's well-being and the availability of a healthy workforce.

What kinds of support matter?

Vaccination helps prevent illness, treatment addresses illness, and health education spreads knowledge about health. Clean drinking water and good sanitation also matter. Sanitation means measures that maintain hygienic conditions, including the safe disposal of waste.

Education and health benefit individuals and society. Educated people can participate effectively in democratic life. Health knowledge and hygienic practices help protect communities. These wider benefits help explain why developing human resources is a social concern.

Literacy is the ability to read and write. Adult literacy figures describe literacy among adults; the following figures cover people aged 15 years and above. The percentage sign, %, means per cent.

Both groups show rising adult literacy across these dates. Female adult literacy remained below male adult literacy in each listed year. Improving women's education supports their economic independence and social position, as well as the health care of women and children.

Why should development go beyond earning more?

Education and health are valuable even when they do not immediately raise earnings. Being able to read, write and live a healthy life gives people greater opportunities to make choices. Human well-being is itself an aim of development.

The quality of education also matters. Years spent at school do not necessarily show how much someone has learned. Likewise, spending on health services does not by itself fully describe people's actual health.

What distinguishes skilled and unskilled human resources?

Skilled human resources are people with the knowledge and training needed for particular work. Unskilled human resources refers to workers whose jobs require little specialised training. These terms describe work preparation, not a person's worth or capacity to learn.

Training develops the ability to perform tasks. Education and training can help people use their abilities more effectively. Engineers and doctors are examples of technically qualified people. Basic manual work that requires little specialised training illustrates what is meant by unskilled work.

How can people acquire work skills?

On-the-job training is training provided to workers in connection with their employment. Workers may learn within a firm under a skilled worker's supervision. They may also be sent outside the workplace for training.

A bus driver provides another clear illustration of a person's knowledge and ability in use. A bus is a physical object, but its operation requires a person who knows how to drive it. The equipment and the worker's ability are distinct resources.

Skilled people also help develop the abilities of others. Teachers and other trained professionals contribute to education and training. Building human resources therefore depends partly on people who already possess relevant knowledge and skills.

How does training contribute to productive work?

Productivity refers to output in relation to the resources used to produce it. Labour productivity concerns output in relation to labour. Training enhances labour productivity by developing work-related abilities.

1. Education provides knowledge that helps people understand tasks and new methods.
2. Training develops the skills needed to carry out particular kinds of work.
3. People apply their knowledge and skills while using tools, equipment or other resources.
4. Improved abilities support greater labour productivity and the use of new technologies.

This sequence explains the connection between learning and productive work. It is not a fixed timetable that every worker follows. People can continue learning while employed, and workplace training adds to the abilities they already possess.

Farmers, nurses, teachers, doctors and engineers all appear in the process of developing human capabilities. A person's occupation alone should not lead us to assume that they have no skills; the relevant question is what knowledge and preparation their work requires.

How do skilled people contribute to India's development?

Socio-economic development involves improvements in people's social and economic lives. It includes education, health, opportunities and productive activity. Skilled people contribute by applying knowledge, improving work methods and helping others develop their abilities.

Education supports the understanding of scientific advances and changes in society. It also helps workers adapt to new technologies. Innovation means introducing new ideas or methods. A knowledgeable workforce can contribute to innovation as well as use existing techniques.

Case study: How does information technology illustrate the value of skills?

Information technology, abbreviated IT, concerns the use of computers and related systems to handle information. India's software industry illustrates the importance of knowledge in economic activity. Software consists of instructions and programs used by computers.

A knowledge-based economy makes use of people's knowledge and technical abilities in its activities. The Indian software industry provides an example of this connection. Ideas about India's development have included using IT to expand such activities.

Some instances of villagers using electronic mail, or e-mail, illustrate the spread of information technology beyond cities. E-mail means messages sent electronically through computer networks. However, the value of IT depends greatly on the existing level of economic development.

That qualification matters: technology's presence alone does not prove that everyone's well-being has improved. The connection between knowledge, opportunities and people's lives must also be considered. Skills are valuable through their use in a wider social and economic setting.

Is education alone enough to explain development?

Education, health and training support people's capacity to earn and produce. Yet proving a direct cause-and-effect relationship between human capital and economic growth is difficult. Economic growth means an increase in a country's real national income, allowing for changes in prices.

Better education and health can support income growth, while higher income can support further investment in people. The relationship can work in both directions. A careful explanation recognises these links without claiming that one skill or technology guarantees development.

What does Bharmaur show about developing human resources?

Case study: How did services support change in Bharmaur?

Bharmaur is a tribal region in Himachal Pradesh's Chamba district, including Bharmaur and Holi. It is inhabited by the Gaddi community. Harsh climate, a limited resource base and a fragile environment have affected its society and economy.

The region has experienced geographical isolation and limited social and economic opportunities. Its economy has largely depended on agriculture and related activities, including sheep and goat rearing. These conditions provide a setting for understanding why access to services matters.

The Integrated Tribal Development Project, abbreviated ITDP, aimed to improve the Gaddis' quality of life and narrow the development gap between Bharmaur and other parts of Himachal Pradesh. Bharmaur became one of the state's five such projects under the tribal sub-plan introduced in 1974.

The plan gave highest priority to transport and communications, agriculture and related activities, and social and community services. Infrastructure means the basic facilities that support people's lives and activities. Schools, health facilities, drinking water, roads, communications and electricity were important improvements.

The programme's social benefits included increased literacy, an improved sex ratio and reduced child marriage. The difference between male and female literacy also declined. These changes connect regional development with improvements in people's lives.

Did every settlement benefit equally?

Villages along the Ravi in the Holi and Khani areas were the main beneficiaries of infrastructure development. Remote villages in Tundah and Kugti still lacked sufficient infrastructure. Development therefore remained uneven within the region.

Bharmaur illustrates how schools, health care and other facilities can support human development together. It also shows why a regional improvement must not be treated as proof that every village has equal access to services.

The example links geographical conditions with opportunities to develop human resources. It does not establish that the region's difficulties were caused simply by a shortage of skills: isolation, environment and access to infrastructure also formed part of the problem.

Glossary

• Human resources — People considered in terms of their abilities to develop and use resources.
• Population distribution — The way people are spread across a particular geographical area.
• Population density — The number of people per unit area, normally expressed per square kilometre.
• Population composition — The structure of a population according to characteristics including age, sex, education and occupation.
• Rural population — The people whose place of residence is in villages.
• Urban population — The people whose place of residence is in towns and cities.
• Sex ratio — The number of females per 1,000 males in a specified area and time.
• Literacy — The ability to read and write, an important aspect of educational attainment.
• Skilled human resources — People possessing the knowledge and training required to perform particular kinds of work.
• On-the-job training — Training provided to workers in connection with the employment they undertake.
• Human capital — Knowledge, skills and abilities developed in people through education, training and health care.
• Infrastructure — Basic facilities supporting people's lives and activities, including schools, roads, water and electricity.

Common errors and misconceptions

• Misconception: A population total tells us everything about human resources. Correct: Education, health, skills and other characteristics also matter.
• Misconception: Distribution and density mean the same thing. Correct: Distribution describes where people live; density relates population to land area.
• Misconception: India's 2011 density applies equally to every region. Correct: It is a national average, while regional densities differ widely.
• Misconception: A sex ratio of 943 means 943 females per 1,000 persons. Correct: It means 943 females per 1,000 males.
• Misconception: An improving overall sex ratio proves an improving child sex ratio. Correct: The two measures cover different age groups and can move in different directions.
• Misconception: Unskilled workers have no human value or potential. Correct: The label concerns specialised work preparation; people can develop abilities through education and training.
• Misconception: Education and health matter only when earnings rise. Correct: They are important to human well-being and people's choices in their own right.

Exam-style questions with model answers

Q1. People use their knowledge and abilities to make natural materials useful, while education and training develop those abilities. Using this information, give two reasons why people are considered resources. [2 marks]

1. People recognise and develop the usefulness of natural materials through their knowledge and abilities.
2. Education and training develop their capacity to use resources and contribute to productive activity.

Q2. In 2011, population density was 382 persons per square kilometre in India, 17 in Arunachal Pradesh and 859 in Kerala. Density means population per unit area. Explain the measure, compare the two states and interpret the national figure in three points. [3 marks]

1. Population density relates the number of people to the land area they occupy. Here its unit is persons per square kilometre.
2. Kerala had a much higher population density than Arunachal Pradesh: the supplied figures are 859 and 17 persons per square kilometre respectively.
3. India's figure of 382 is a national average. The contrasting state figures show that it does not describe every state's density.

Q3. India's overall sex ratio was 933 in 2001 and 943 in 2011; its child sex ratio was 927 and 919 respectively. Overall ratios count females per 1,000 males of all ages; child ratios count girls per 1,000 boys aged 0 to 6. Make four observations about coverage, direction of change and the comparison. [4 marks]

1. The overall sex ratio covers all age groups and expresses the number of females for every 1,000 males.
2. The child sex ratio covers only children aged 0 to 6, comparing girls with boys within that age group.
3. The overall ratio increased from 933 to 943 between 2001 and 2011, while the child ratio decreased from 927 to 919.
4. Therefore, an improvement in the overall ratio did not mean an improvement among children. The age coverage must remain clear when comparing the figures.

Q4. Use these facts to explain population concentration in four points: fertile soil supports farming in the Ganga and Brahmaputra plains; fresh water attracts settlement; Pune offers housing, education and health facilities; Mumbai provides industrial employment. [4 marks]

1. Fertile soil supports agriculture, helping explain the concentration of people in the Ganga and Brahmaputra plains where farming conditions are favourable.
2. Fresh water attracts people towards places where it is readily available, helping explain the settlement of river valleys.
3. Housing, education and health facilities attract settlement. Pune illustrates the importance of these social facilities in population concentration.
4. Industrial employment draws people towards areas with work opportunities. Mumbai illustrates how an economic factor can support a large population concentration.

Q5. Education develops knowledge and choices; trained workers can use new technologies; workplace training improves work abilities; illness without medical care interrupts work; clean water and sanitation support health; education and health are valuable even without higher output. Use these facts to explain human resource development in six points. [6 marks]

1. Education develops people's knowledge and helps them make better choices. It therefore improves capabilities that matter in work and in everyday life.
2. A trained workforce can understand and use new technologies. This connects the development of human abilities with changes in methods of production.
3. Workplace training improves task-related abilities. It adds to workers' existing preparation and helps them carry out their work more effectively.
4. Medical care matters because illness can interrupt a person's work. Supporting health helps people maintain their ability to participate in productive activity.
5. Clean water and sanitation contribute to healthy living conditions. Human resource development therefore involves basic facilities as well as individual education or training.
6. Education and health remain valuable even without higher output. They support human well-being, which is itself an important aim of development.

Q6. Bharmaur's development programme improved schools, health facilities, drinking water, roads, communications and electricity. Female literacy rose from 1.88 per cent in 1971 to 65 per cent in 2011. The sex ratio improved and child marriage declined. Holi and Khani benefited most, while remote Tundah and Kugti villages still lacked sufficient infrastructure. Explain the achievements and limitation in five points. [5 marks]

1. Improved schools provided educational infrastructure for developing people's capabilities. This connects the programme with the development of human resources through access to learning facilities.
2. Health facilities and drinking water supported people's health needs, while roads, communications and electricity formed other important parts of the improved infrastructure.
3. Female literacy rose from 1.88 per cent in 1971 to 65 per cent in 2011, showing a substantial educational improvement between the stated dates.
4. An improved sex ratio and reduced child marriage were additional social benefits. The programme's reported achievements therefore extended beyond the construction of facilities.
5. Benefits were uneven: Holi and Khani gained most, while remote Tundah and Kugti villages still lacked sufficient infrastructure. Regional progress did not mean equal access everywhere.

Key takeaways

• People develop resources through their abilities, while education, health and training help strengthen their capacities and opportunities.
• Population distribution describes where people live; population density measures the number of people in relation to land area.
• India's uneven settlement pattern reflects natural conditions, employment, social facilities, transport networks and the history of settlement.
• Rural and urban shares describe residence, while sex ratios describe the numerical balance between females and males.
• Historical population figures need their dates, units and population coverage; a national average does not describe every locality.
• Work skills can develop through education and training, including learning under skilled workers in connection with employment.
• Health and education support productive activity and are valuable for people's well-being even without increased earnings.
• Bharmaur shows that better services can accompany social progress while significant inequalities in access remain within a region.

Test yourself

Why does population size alone give an incomplete picture of human resources?

It counts people but does not describe their education, health, skills or opportunities to develop and use their abilities.

How does density differ from distribution?

Density measures people per unit area; distribution describes the way people are spread across an area.

What does a rural population share describe?

It describes the proportion of the total population living in villages, rather than in towns and cities.

How many males form the comparison base for India's sex ratio?

The comparison base is 1,000 males. The sex ratio expresses how many females there are for that number of males.

What is one way workers receive on-the-job training?

Workers may learn within their workplace under the supervision of a skilled worker, developing abilities related to their employment.

Why are education and health important beyond productivity?

They support well-being and people's ability to make choices, even when they do not increase production or earnings.

What qualification matters when linking information technology with development?

The value of information technology depends greatly on the existing level of economic development; its presence alone does not prove improved well-being.

What limitation remained in Bharmaur's infrastructure development?

Remote villages in Tundah and Kugti still lacked sufficient infrastructure, although Holi and Khani were the main beneficiaries.