North-East Insurgencies

Introduction

Today, North-East India (NEI) consists of eight Indian states: Sikkim and the "seven sister states" of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. The Tibet Autonomous Region, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh all border NEI. The region is rich in biodiversity and in largely untapped natural resources. It is linked to the rest of India by the roughly 22-kilometre-long "Siliguri Corridor," often called the Chicken's Neck. As a result, it is strategically, politically and economically significant for India.

Since the 1950s, NEI has been troubled by insurgency, with no easy end in sight. Even where some states have grown quiet after ending their insurgencies, the region's general environment is not always favourable to peaceful living and matching growth. This article is one of many study notes in our resources library, and it works best when you tie the textbook facts to what is happening in the region right now.

Historical background

From 1228 to 1826, Assam was controlled by the Ahom kings. Because of an incursion by the then Burmese state into Assam, the Ahom monarchs requested assistance from the British East India Company. After their victory over the Burmese, the British signed the Treaty of Yandaboo on 24 February 1826, ending the reign of the Ahom kings and bringing Assam into British India. From then on, Assam was a British-ruled province until independence.

At the time of independence, NEI included Assam, the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA), which is now Arunachal Pradesh, and the princely states of Manipur and Tripura, which chose to join India in 1949. Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram were all carved out of Assam later: Nagaland in 1963, Meghalaya in 1972, and Mizoram between 1972 and 1987 as a Union Territory and then a full state. Sikkim was a monarchy that was integrated into India following a referendum in 1975. As a result, the modern North-East is a melting pot of many tribes, languages, cultures, histories and ethnicities.

Why insurgency grew

The British had largely followed a policy of non-interference in the NEI. However, newly independent India in 1947 faced the enormous task of integrating the country's many princely states, not just the North-East. Efforts to bring North-Eastern cultures into the "mainstream" were frequently met with hostility. Insurgency began in the Naga Hills. On 14 August 1947, the Naga National Council (NNC), under the leadership of A. Z. Phizo, declared independence from India. Despite several attempts at a political settlement, the unrest did not fade. As a result, the Indian Army was ordered to conduct counter-insurgency operations in 1956, after the Government of India declared the Naga Hills a disturbed area. Following that, many groups pressed their own claims for freedom through insurgencies in the region.

The main reasons behind the rise and persistence of insurgency include the following.

• A very diverse ethnic composition. NEI is India's most ethnically diverse area. Many tribal groups have resisted integration into the mainstream because they fear it means the loss of their distinct identity. When the government uses a one-size-fits-all idea of "integration," movements to protect local culture tend to grow. Inter-tribal rivalry can make this worse by fuelling further ethnic tension.
• An underdeveloped region. The hilly terrain in NEI makes it hard and expensive to build infrastructure, so development has often moved at a snail's pace. This has widened the gap between the North-East and the rest of India and left many people unhappy with the government.
• Lack of economic development. Economic policy has also fed public discontent and insecurity. For a range of reasons, the development of NEI has lagged, creating a shortage of jobs. As a result, some young people are drawn towards rebel groups in search of quick money.
• Feelings of isolation and neglect. Distance from New Delhi and limited representation in the Lok Sabha have made it harder for people to be heard in the corridors of power. This can deepen frustration with the dialogue process and make the call to arms more appealing.
• Demographic shifts. The inflow of migrants from former East Pakistan, now Bangladesh, into Assam caused a major change in the region's population. This stirred anger among local people and led to an insurgency in Assam. The United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA), formed on 7 April 1979, led much of the anti-immigrant agitation.
• Internal displacement. Displacement has been a persistent problem. From the 1990s to the beginning of 2011, inter-ethnic violence forced over 800,000 people to leave their homes in western Assam, along the Assam and Meghalaya border, and in Tripura. By conservative estimates, tens of thousands of people remained internally displaced in NEI because of the ongoing armed conflict.
• Outside assistance. Insurgencies in the NEI received outside backing at various times. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, erstwhile East Pakistan trained and armed some Naga fighters. Later, China provided weapons and ideological support, especially between 1967 and 1975, and Pakistan's intelligence agency, the ISI, is reported to have provided training and funds to some groups. This external support gave several movements arms and encouragement they could not have gathered on their own.
• A porous border. Long and porous international borders make the whole problem harder, allowing illegal activities such as the smuggling of arms and drugs.
• Perceived excesses under AFSPA. The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA), applied across much of the NEI, has further alienated some local people. Though the security forces see it as necessary for counter-insurgency work, many human rights organisations describe it as harsh, and several rebel groups strongly oppose it.

Why it still matters

The insurgencies you have just read about are not only history. The North-East is still one of India's most closely watched regions, and two very different stories are unfolding there at the same time: one of peace, and one of fresh conflict.

A major peace accord in Assam. On 29 December 2023, the pro-talks faction of the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA), led by Arabinda Rajkhowa, signed a tripartite peace agreement with the Government of India and the Government of Assam, in the presence of the Union Home Minister. ULFA had been founded in 1979 to demand a sovereign Assam through armed struggle. Under the 2023 accord it accepted a settlement within the framework of the Indian Constitution, in return for promises on land rights, cultural safeguards and development for indigenous people. A hardline faction led by Paresh Baruah, believed to be based near the China and Myanmar border, stayed out of the deal, so this chapter is not fully closed.

A new ethnic conflict in Manipur. While Assam moved towards peace, the neighbouring state of Manipur was torn apart. From 3 May 2023, violence broke out between the Meitei community of the Imphal valley and the Kuki-Zo tribes of the surrounding hills. The human rights group Amnesty International reported that more than 260 people were killed and that, two years on, more than 50,000 people were still living in relief camps, unable to return home. In February 2025 the central government imposed President's Rule on the state. This shows how quickly the old fault lines this article describes, ethnic identity, land and a sense of neglect, can flare into fresh violence.

The AFSPA debate is still live. AFSPA remains one of the most argued-over laws in the region. Citing a large fall in militancy, the Union Home Ministry has steadily shrunk the "disturbed areas" where AFSPA applies across Assam, Nagaland and Manipur since 2022, but many groups still demand its complete removal. For more background you can read our study notes on Indian Polity, and explore how India's institutions and regions connect in the Learnacy Hub.

Way forward

There is no escaping the fact that India's North-East is a region marked by enormous diversity and complexity. Several of the key root causes of the region's conflicts and insurgencies are unequal development and regional deprivation. Addressing them calls for patience on several fronts at once.

• Continue the work of civil society. Whatever the outcome of formal peace talks, efforts by civil society to reach out to rebel organisations must continue. This offers a legitimate way out for insurgent leaders and can create a result in which everyone gains.
• Increase socio-economic development. To address one of the main causes of insurgency, the government must speed up regional development. The Act East Policy, announced by the Prime Minister in November 2014, is a step in the right direction. Building roads, hospitals, schools and sanitation facilities is critical to instilling a sense of belonging among the people of NEI.
• Emphasise identity rather than forced "mainstreaming." NEI is a mix of tribes, nationalities, religions, customs and languages. The emphasis should be on preserving each community's identity. Fear of the North-East breaking apart should not drive policy. Inclusive development that accommodates all ethnic groups and tribes should be the priority.
• Keep negotiating. Dialogue with insurgent leaders can help resolve conflicts. The question of self-determination deserves careful attention rather than only suppression. It is more than crude violence, and it involves deeper social, economic and political issues.

Conclusion

Despite many efforts by the government to find a permanent solution, NEI insurgencies have persisted for the past seven decades. However, with the older generation passing away and much of the younger generation less interested in armed struggle, the time has come to design a long-term strategy for ending the remaining insurgencies. The cornerstones of lasting peace in NEI are a careful mix of socio-economic development and political settlement. Winning hearts and minds should be at the centre of any resolution.

The Indian Army, acting as an instrument of state policy, plays a critical role in conducting counter-insurgency operations that prevent insurgent organisations from escalating violence. It has done this task well so far and must continue wherever it is needed. Resolving the current insurgencies in NEI would help usher in lasting peace and, with it, economic prosperity for the millions of people who live there. That, in turn, would strengthen the success of India's Act East Policy and India's rise as a major power in the multipolar world of the twenty-first century.

Sources

1. Amnesty International, "Authorities should urgently rehabilitate thousands displaced in two years of ethnic violence in Manipur," May 2025.
2. ETV Bharat, "Historic tripartite peace accord inked between ULFA's pro-talks faction, Centre and Assam government," 29 December 2023.
3. Drishti IAS, "Peace Pact with ULFA," 2024.
4. The Tribune, "Reduction of AFSPA applicable areas in Nagaland, Assam and Manipur announced," 2022.

Key takeaways

• North-East India consists of eight states connected to the rest of India by the Siliguri Corridor, making it strategically, politically and economically significant for India.
• Insurgency began in the Naga Hills on 14 August 1947 when the Naga National Council declared independence, leading to Indian Army counter-insurgency operations in 1956.
• Key causes of insurgency include ethnic diversity and fear of identity loss, underdevelopment, lack of economic opportunity, feelings of isolation from Delhi, demographic shifts from migration, internal displacement, and outside assistance from neighboring countries.
• The region came under British control through the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826 and was integrated into India through the accession of princely states (Manipur, Tripura in 1949) and later creation of new states from Assam.
• Insurgency remains relevant as the North-East continues to be one of India's most closely watched regions, with ongoing security and political challenges.

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