Rise of Fascism under Mussolini in Italy (1919-⁠39) | ISC Class 11 History Notes

This note covers the rise of Fascism under Benito Mussolini in Italy between 1919 and 1939: the post-war discontent that fed it, the events from the election of 1921 to the March on Rome in October 1922, the main features of Mussolini's domestic policy, a critical appraisal of his economic policy, a timeline, the different groups who took part, and answers to exam-style questions.

What was the background to post-war discontent in Italy?

Italy came out of the First World War on the winning side, but many Italians felt they had won a war and lost the peace.

The country had entered the war in 1915 on the side of Britain and France, and at the peace settlement of 1919 it gained the Trentino, Trieste and the South Tyrol, but it was refused the Dalmatian coast and the colonial gains it had been promised.

Nationalists spoke bitterly of a mutilated victory. This sense of betrayal gave Fascism its first and loudest argument.

The war had also left deep economic damage. About 600,000 Italians had been killed, and the state had borrowed heavily to pay for the fighting.

Prices rose steeply after 1918, the lira lost value, and unemployment grew as war industries closed. Returning soldiers found little work, and many peasants and workers had been promised land and reform that never came.

The political system was weak. Italy was a constitutional monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel III, but governments were short-lived coalitions, and the electoral system of proportional representation made stable majorities almost impossible.

Between 1919 and 1922 Italy had several prime ministers in quick succession. The Socialist Party had grown strong, and the Popular Party of Catholic inspiration had also gained seats, so no single group could govern alone.

Definition: Fascism is a political movement that glorifies the nation and the state above the individual, rejects parliamentary democracy and class conflict, and is led by a single charismatic leader who claims to embody the will of the people.

What conditions caused the rise of Fascism in Italy?

Several conditions worked together to make Fascism attractive to many Italians.

Disappointment over the peace settlement

Nationalists argued that Italy had been treated as a second-rate power at Paris in 1919.

Gabriele D'Annunzio, a poet and war hero, seized the port of Fiume in September 1919 with a band of volunteers and held it for over a year, showing how easily armed adventurers could defy the government.

Economic distress

Inflation, unemployment and heavy war debts hit the middle classes and the ex-servicemen hardest. Small shopkeepers, clerks and professionals feared that a socialist revolution would destroy their savings and their status.

The fear of socialism

The years 1919 to 1920 are often called the Biennio Rosso, the two red years. There were strikes in the factories of the north, and peasants occupied large estates in the south and the Po valley.

The Socialists talked of following the Russian example. Many property owners began to look for a strong hand to restore order.

A weak and divided state

Liberal governments seemed unable to control either the strikes or the nationalist agitation. The police and army were often sympathetic to the Fascists, who claimed to be defending the nation against Bolshevism.

The appeal of a leader and a movement

Mussolini offered action, discipline and national pride. His Fasci di Combattimento, founded in Milan in March 1919, used the black shirt, the Roman salute and the fasces, the bundle of rods carried by Roman magistrates, as symbols of unity and authority.

Note: A common confusion is to think Fascism was only a working-class movement. In fact its strongest support came from the middle classes, ex-servicemen, students and landowners who feared socialism, though it also won some workers and peasants.

How did Mussolini come to power between 1921 and 1922?

The road to power can be traced through a short sequence of events.

1. In the general election of May 1921, the Fascists stood as part of the National Bloc with Liberals and Nationalists. About 35 Fascists, including Mussolini, were elected to the Chamber of Deputies.
2. In November 1921 the movement was turned into a political party, the Partito Nazionale Fascista (National Fascist Party), with Mussolini as its leader.
3. During 1921 and 1922 the squadristi, the armed blackshirt squads, attacked socialist and trade union offices, newspapers and meetings, especially in the Po valley and Tuscany. The government rarely stopped them.
4. In the summer of 1922 a general strike called by the Socialists failed, and the Fascists used its collapse to present themselves as the only force able to keep order.
5. In October 1922 the party organised the March on Rome. Thousands of Fascists gathered at points outside the capital and marched towards it.
6. On 28 October 1922 Prime Minister Luigi Facta asked the King to declare a state of siege so that the army could stop the marchers. The King refused.
7. On 29 October 1922 the King invited Mussolini to form a government. Mussolini travelled from Milan by train and took office on 30 October 1922.

The March on Rome was less a military coup than a show of force that the authorities chose not to resist. Mussolini became Prime Minister legally, at the head of a coalition, and only later built the dictatorship.

Draw a simple map of northern and central Italy marking Milan, where Mussolini waited, and Rome.

Show arrows of blackshirt columns moving towards Rome from the north, and mark 28 October, when the King refused the state of siege, and 30 October, when Mussolini took office.

How did Mussolini turn a legal premiership into a dictatorship?

Between 1922 and 1926 Mussolini dismantled parliamentary government step by step.

In 1923 the Acerbo Law changed the electoral system so that the party with the largest number of votes, if it had at least a quarter of them, would receive two-thirds of the seats.

In the election of April 1924 the Fascists, with their allies, won a large majority amid widespread intimidation.

In June 1924 the Socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti was kidnapped and murdered after he had denounced Fascist violence in the Chamber. The murder caused an outcry, but the King did not act, and Mussolini survived the crisis.

In January 1925 he made a speech in the Chamber taking responsibility for the violence and promising to make the nation Fascist.

The years 1925 and 1926 saw the Leggi Fascistissime, the very Fascist laws. Opposition parties were banned, the press was censored, a special tribunal was set up, and local elected mayors were replaced by appointed officials called podestà.

In 1928 the Gran Consiglio del Fascismo, the Grand Council of Fascism, was given constitutional status, and in 1929 the Lateran Treaty with the Pope settled the long dispute between Italy and the Church.

What were the main features of Mussolini's domestic policy?

Mussolini's domestic policy aimed at making Italy a disciplined, self-sufficient and militarised nation under one leader.

Political control

Italy became a one-party state. The Chamber of Deputies was replaced in 1939 by the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations, whose members were appointed rather than elected. The secret police, the OVRA, set up in 1927, watched opponents, and the Blackshirts and the militia enforced party discipline.

Economic policy

The government promoted heavy industry, drained marshes and built roads, railways and public buildings. The battle for grain, launched in 1925, aimed at making Italy self-sufficient in wheat.

The battle of the lira in 1926 fixed the exchange rate at 90 lire to the pound to strengthen the currency.

In 1933 the state set up the IRI, the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction, which rescued the failing banks by taking over their shares in industry, so that the state came to own a large part of Italian industry.

The Corporate State set up corporations that were supposed to bring employers and workers together under state supervision. The Charter of Labour of 1927 set out its principles, and 22 corporations were created in 1934.

Social policy

The Dopolavoro organisation provided leisure activities for workers. The Balilla and Avanguardisti trained boys and youths in discipline and military drill.

In the battle for births, launched in 1927, women were encouraged to stay at home and bear children, large families were rewarded and bachelors were taxed.

The Lateran Treaty of 1929 made peace with the Catholic Church and recognised the Vatican City as a sovereign state.

In 1938, as Mussolini drew closer to Hitler, the regime passed racial laws that expelled Jews from schools, universities, the armed forces and public employment and banned marriages between Jews and other Italians.

Propaganda and the cult of the leader

The regime controlled newspapers, radio and cinema newsreels, and presented Mussolini as Il Duce, the leader, a man of genius and action. The slogan "Mussolini is always right" summed up the cult of personality.

Definition: The Corporate State was Mussolini's system of organising the economy into corporations of employers and workers in each branch of production, under state control, in place of free trade unions and independent employers' associations.

What were the results of Mussolini's policies, particularly his economic policy, and how should they be judged?

A critical appraisal must weigh the claims of the regime against its results.

Successes claimed

The battle for grain raised wheat output and reduced dependence on imports. Land reclamation and public works gave employment and improved some regions. The Lateran Treaty and the settlement of the Roman question won the regime wide support.

The IRI rescued banks and industries during the world depression of the 1930s.

Failures and costs

The battle for grain encouraged wheat at the expense of more profitable crops such as olives and vines, and raised the price of bread. The battle of the lira overvalued the currency and hurt exporters.

The Corporate State did not really give workers a share in management; it mainly controlled them. Wages fell, real incomes of workers declined, and the regime spent heavily on armaments and on prestige projects.

The economy remained dependent on imports of coal, oil and iron, and the sanctions imposed after the invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 exposed this weakness.

How should his political and social policies be judged?

Politically, the regime gave Italy a stability that the weak governments of 1919 to 1922 had lacked, but at the price of liberty. Parties, free trade unions and a free press were destroyed, opponents were watched by the OVRA, beaten or sent into internal exile, and the murder of the Socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti in 1924 showed the violence behind the regime. Yet Fascist Italy was less total than Nazi Germany: the King, the Church and the army kept some independence, and in 1943 the King was able to dismiss Mussolini.

The social policies had mixed results. The Lateran Treaty of 1929 was a lasting success that won the regime the support of many Catholics, and the Dopolavoro was popular because it gave workers cheap holidays, sport and entertainment. But the battle for births failed, since the birth rate went on falling, and the youth movements produced more outward conformity than real belief. The racial laws of 1938 were unpopular with many Italians and showed how far Mussolini had come to follow Hitler.

Overall judgement

Mussolini's economic policy was more successful in propaganda than in raising the standard of living. It strengthened state control and heavy industry but did not make Italy self-sufficient or prosperous, and it tied the economy to preparation for war. Taken as a whole, his policies made Italy look strong and united while leaving it poorer, less free and tied to Hitler's Germany.

What is the timeline of Fascism in Italy, 1919 to 1939?

How did different groups take part in the rise of Fascism?

The middle classes and ex-servicemen

Shopkeepers, clerks, teachers and former soldiers feared socialism and inflation. They joined the Fascist squads and gave the movement its core of support.

Landowners and industrialists

Owners of estates and factories welcomed the squadristi as a defence against strikes and land seizures. Some financed the movement, though many later found the regime's controls unwelcome.

Workers and peasants

Many workers and peasants supported the Socialists and the trade unions, and suffered most from Fascist violence. Some, however, were attracted by the promise of land, jobs and national pride.

The King and the army

King Victor Emmanuel III and much of the army and civil service disliked parliamentary disorder and were willing to let Mussolini take office. The King's refusal to sign the state of siege on 28 October 1922 was decisive.

The Catholic Church

The Church had long been hostile to the anticlerical Liberal state. The Lateran Treaty of 1929 reconciled it to the regime, though Catholic organisations were later restricted.

How did Fascism differ from Socialism and Liberal democracy?

What sources tell us about Fascist Italy?

Historians rely on several kinds of evidence. Official records of the elections of 1921 and 1924, and of the plebiscite of 1929, show how the regime managed voting.

Police and court records of the special tribunal, set up in 1926, reveal how opponents were silenced.

The speeches of Mussolini, such as his speech in the Chamber in January 1925, and the propaganda of the Dopolavoro and the Balilla, show how the regime presented itself.

The Lateran Treaty of 1929 is a formal document that can be read in full. Memoirs of opponents, and the reports of foreign journalists and diplomats, give another view.

Economic statistics of the 1930s, including those of the IRI, allow historians to test the claims of the battle for grain and the battle of the lira.

Taken together, these sources show a regime that was skilled at propaganda but weaker in delivering prosperity.

Glossary

• Fascism: A nationalist, authoritarian political movement that rejects democracy and class conflict and is led by a single leader.
• Fasci di Combattimento: The fighting bands founded by Mussolini in Milan in March 1919, the seed of the Fascist Party.
• Squadristi: Armed blackshirt squads who attacked socialists, trade unions and opponents in 1921 and 1922.
• March on Rome: The Fascist show of force in October 1922 that led the King to invite Mussolini to form a government.
• Acerbo Law: The 1923 electoral law that gave two-thirds of the seats to the party with the largest vote.
• Leggi Fascistissime: The very Fascist laws of 1925 and 1926 that banned opposition and set up the dictatorship.
• Il Duce: The leader, the title by which Mussolini was known.
• Corporate State: The system of state-supervised corporations of employers and workers in place of free unions.
• Lateran Treaty: The 1929 agreement with the Pope that recognised the Vatican City and settled the Roman question.
• OVRA: The Fascist secret police that watched and arrested opponents.
• IRI: The Institute for Industrial Reconstruction, set up in 1933 to rescue banks and industry.
• Biennio Rosso: The two red years, 1919 to 1920, of strikes and land occupations.

Common errors and misconceptions

• Misconception: Mussolini seized power by force in a military coup. Correct: He was legally appointed Prime Minister by the King on 29 October 1922 after the March on Rome.
• Misconception: Fascism was mainly a working-class movement. Correct: Its strongest support came from the middle classes, ex-servicemen and landowners who feared socialism.
• Misconception: Italy won territory at the peace settlement and was satisfied. Correct: Nationalists spoke of a mutilated victory because Italy did not get Dalmatia and the colonies it had been promised.
• Misconception: The Corporate State gave workers real power. Correct: It mainly controlled workers and left employers in charge under state supervision.
• Misconception: The battle for grain made Italy prosperous. Correct: It raised wheat output but hurt other crops and raised the price of bread.
• Misconception: The Lateran Treaty made the Pope head of the Italian state. Correct: It recognised the Vatican City as a small sovereign state and settled the dispute with the Church.

Exam-style questions with model answers

Q1. State any two conditions in post-war Italy that gave rise to Fascism. [2 marks]

1. Nationalist anger at the peace settlement of 1919, which was called a mutilated victory because Italy did not get Dalmatia and the colonies it had been promised.
2. Economic distress after the war, with heavy war debts, inflation, unemployment and the fear of socialism among the middle classes.

Q2. State any four events between the election of 1921 and October 1922 that brought Mussolini to power. [4 marks]

1. In the May 1921 election about 35 Fascists, including Mussolini, were elected as part of the National Bloc.
2. In November 1921 the movement became the National Fascist Party with Mussolini as leader.
3. During 1921 and 1922 the squadristi attacked socialist and trade union offices and meetings, and the government rarely stopped them.
4. In October 1922 the March on Rome took place; the King refused the state of siege on 28 October and invited Mussolini to form a government on 29 October.

Q3. Explain any four features of Mussolini's domestic policy. [4 marks]

1. Political control: Italy became a one-party state, opposition parties were banned by the Leggi Fascistissime of 1925 and 1926, and the OVRA watched opponents.
2. Economic policy: the battle for grain from 1925, the battle of the lira in 1926, the IRI in 1933 and the Corporate State.
3. Social policy: the Dopolavoro for workers' leisure, the Balilla for boys, rewards for large families, and the Lateran Treaty of 1929.
4. Propaganda: control of press, radio and cinema, and the cult of Il Duce, summed up in the slogan that Mussolini is always right.

Q4. Critically appraise Mussolini's economic policy. [5 marks]

1. The battle for grain raised wheat output and reduced imports, but it encouraged wheat at the expense of olives and vines and raised the price of bread.
2. The battle of the lira fixed the exchange rate at 90 lire to the pound, which overvalued the currency and hurt exporters.
3. The Corporate State was meant to bring employers and workers together, but it mainly controlled workers and did not give them a share in management.
4. Public works, land reclamation and the IRI rescued some industries, but the economy remained dependent on imported coal, oil and iron.
5. Wages fell and real incomes declined while spending on armaments and prestige projects rose, so the policy was stronger in propaganda than in raising living standards.

Q5. How did the March on Rome lead to Mussolini becoming Prime Minister? [4 marks]

1. In October 1922 thousands of Fascists gathered outside Rome and marched towards the capital.
2. On 28 October Prime Minister Facta asked the King to declare a state of siege so the army could stop them.
3. The King refused, and the army did not act against the marchers.
4. On 29 October the King invited Mussolini to form a government, and he took office on 30 October 1922.

Q6. Distinguish between Fascism and Liberal democracy. [4 marks]

1. Fascism has one party and one leader; liberal democracy has multi-party elections and a constitution.
2. Fascism makes the nation and state supreme over the individual; liberal democracy protects individual rights.
3. Fascism rejects class conflict and stresses national unity; liberal democracy accepts competition of interests within law.
4. Fascism controls the press and uses propaganda; liberal democracy allows a free press and open debate.

Q7. Evaluate the claim that Mussolini's domestic policy was more successful in propaganda than in practice. [6 marks]

1. The regime was skilled at propaganda: it controlled press, radio and cinema and built the cult of Il Duce.
2. The Lateran Treaty of 1929 settled the Roman question and won wide support, a real success.
3. The battle for grain raised wheat output, but it hurt other crops and raised the price of bread.
4. The battle of the lira overvalued the currency and hurt exporters.
5. The Corporate State controlled workers rather than giving them power, and real wages fell.
6. The economy stayed dependent on imports, and sanctions after the invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 exposed this weakness, so the claim is largely justified.

Key takeaways

• Italy's disappointment at the 1919 peace settlement, called a mutilated victory, gave Fascism its first argument.
• Economic distress and fear of socialism in the Biennio Rosso of 1919 to 1920 pushed the middle classes towards Mussolini.
• Mussolini came to power legally: the King refused the state of siege on 28 October 1922 and appointed him Prime Minister.
• The Acerbo Law of 1923 and the murder of Matteotti in 1924 helped the Fascists tighten their grip.
• The Leggi Fascistissime of 1925 and 1926 banned opposition and set up the dictatorship.
• The Lateran Treaty of 1929 settled the dispute with the Church and won the regime wide support.
• The battle for grain and the battle of the lira were stronger in propaganda than in economic results.
• The Corporate State controlled workers rather than giving them a share in management.

Test yourself

In which year was the Fasci di Combattimento founded?

In March 1919, in Milan, by Benito Mussolini.

What was the Acerbo Law?

The 1923 electoral law that gave two-thirds of the seats to the party with the largest vote, provided it had at least a quarter of the votes.

Who was Giacomo Matteotti?

A Socialist deputy who denounced Fascist violence in the Chamber in 1924 and was kidnapped and murdered in June 1924.

What did the Lateran Treaty of 1929 do?

It settled the dispute between Italy and the Pope and recognised the Vatican City as a sovereign state.

What was the battle of the lira?

The 1926 policy that fixed the exchange rate at 90 lire to the pound to strengthen the currency, though it overvalued the lira and hurt exporters.

What was the OVRA?

The Fascist secret police that watched and arrested opponents of the regime.

When did Mussolini become Prime Minister?

On 30 October 1922, after the King invited him to form a government on 29 October following the March on Rome.