The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation | CBSE Class 6 History Notes

This note covers civilisation, the growth of Harappan cities, rivers and settlements, historical evidence, town-planning, water management, agriculture, crafts, trade, writing, everyday life, cultural objects and the decline of urban life.

What is a civilisation, and what features define it?

A civilisation is an advanced stage of human society. It involves several connected developments: organised administration, cities, crafts, trade, writing, cultural ideas and productive agriculture. A large settlement alone does not explain the whole idea.

Early human groups settled down, practised agriculture and developed technologies such as construction, transport and metallurgy. Metallurgy includes extracting metals from nature, purifying or combining them, and studying metals and their properties. These developments helped societies move towards civilisation.

How do its main characteristics fit together?

Internal trade takes place within a city or region; external trade connects it with distant regions or other parts of the world. Both belong to the larger network of activities that supports a civilisation.

Agriculture connects rural and urban life. Here, rural means relating to villages, while urban means relating to towns and cities. Cities depend on agricultural supplies from villages, even when their own inhabitants carry out many other activities.

Civilisations developed at different times in different places. Mesopotamia, the region of modern Iraq and Syria, saw civilisation begin around 3500 BCE. Ancient Egypt followed around 3100 BCE. These early societies made major contributions to humanity's later development.

What were the origins and geographical setting of Harappan civilisation?

The story of India's earliest civilisation begins in the northwest of the Indian Subcontinent. The plains of Punjab, now divided between India and Pakistan, and Sindh, now in Pakistan, received water from the Indus River and its tributaries.

A tributary is a river that flows into a larger river or a lake. These rivers made the plains fertile and favourable for agriculture. Further east, the Sarasvatī flowed a few millenniums ago from the Himalayan foothills through Haryana, Punjab, parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

From about 3500 BCE, villages in this region grew into towns. BCE means Before Common Era. Increasing trade and other exchanges helped towns grow further into cities. This transition happened around 2600 BCE and is called India's First Urbanisation, or first development of cities.

Why does this civilisation have several names?

Harappan, Indus, Indus-Sarasvatī and Sindhu-Sarasvatī are names for the same civilisation. Its people are called Harappans. Harappa gave the civilisation its name because it was the first of its cities to be excavated, in 1920 to 1921. Excavation means carefully uncovering buried remains.

The older expression “Indus Valley civilisation” is too narrow because the civilisation extended far beyond the Indus region. Discoveries include Dholavira in Gujarat, Rakhigarhi in Haryana and Ganweriwala in Pakistan's Cholistan desert, alongside many smaller settlements.

The map marks Harappa and Mohenjo-daro near the Indus river system, Rakhigarhi further east and Dholavira and Lothal further south. Brown mountain ranges form natural boundaries around parts of the settlement region.

See Fig. 6.3 in your NCERT textbook

A river basin is the area drained by a river and its tributaries. The Sarasvatī basin contained major cities such as Rakhigarhi and Ganweriwala, smaller settlements such as Farmana and Kalibangan, and towns such as Bhirrana and Banawali. The basin therefore forms an important part of the civilisation's geographical extent.

The Sarasvatī is now known as the Ghaggar in India and the Hakra in Pakistan. It is seasonal, flowing only during the rainy season. The Ṛig Veda, an ancient collection of prayers, mentions it as a goddess and river; later texts describe its drying and disappearance.

What does the timeline show about growth, decline and discovery?

A timeline places developments in their time order. For Harappan history, it helps distinguish the gradual growth of settlements from the later urban civilisation. It also separates events in ancient life from the much later discovery of their remains.

The dates marked “about” or “around” are approximate. They describe changes over time, rather than a single day on which all settlements changed together. The growth of towns came before the fully developed urban phase.

Similarly, the beginning of a drier climate should not be treated as the immediate abandonment of every city. Climatic change began earlier, while urban decline became apparent around 1900 BCE. Cities were abandoned one by one, and people gradually spread into rural settlements.

Note: The dates 1920 to 1921 and 1924 concern excavation and identification. They are not dates when Harappan people founded their ancient cities.

What historical sources reveal Harappan life, and what remains uncertain?

Archaeology studies the past through material remains, including buildings and objects. Archaeologists have uncovered streets, houses, drains, wells, reservoirs, tools, ornaments, seals and pottery. These remains provide evidence about how Harappan people lived and worked.

Harappa was first excavated in 1920 to 1921. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were the first two cities discovered, and their identification goes back to 1924. Later discoveries extended knowledge of the civilisation beyond the Indus plains. Discoveries of settlements continue.

How can different remains answer different questions?

Evidence does not make every interpretation certain. The Harappan writing system and the symbolic meaning of animals on seals are still not understood. A surviving object may therefore show what people made without settling exactly what it meant to them.

The Great Bath is an important example. Its structure survives, but no inscription, text or traveller's account explains its purpose. Similarly, the figure often called the “Priest King” does not establish the identity or position of the person represented.

Interpretation means an explanation of evidence. A careful historical explanation distinguishes what has been found from what archaeologists think it may show. Proposed answers about administration, religious practices and particular structures are not always final.

How were Harappan cities planned, and how did their parts differ?

The larger Harappan cities followed precise plans. Their wide streets were often oriented towards the cardinal directions: north, south, east and west. Houses of different sizes stood along the main streets and smaller lanes.

Most cities seem to have been surrounded by fortifications. A fortification is a massive wall around a city or settlement, generally for protection. Most cities had an upper town and a lower town, but this arrangement did not apply in exactly the same way everywhere.

Who lived in the upper and lower towns?

The local elite probably lived in the upper town. Elite here means society's higher layers, such as rulers, officials, administrators and often priests. Common people lived in the lower town. The word “probably” matters when identifying the upper town's inhabitants.

Some large buildings seem to have been used collectively, for example as warehouses for goods awaiting transport. Individual houses varied in size, but small and large houses had the same quality of construction. Buildings were generally made of bricks.

What makes Dholavira a useful comparison?

Dholavira had three distinct zones rather than two. Its middle town contained a housing area with perpendicular streets, meaning streets meeting at right angles. The foundations of most buildings there were made with stones.

Photographs: Street in Kalibangan's lower town and housing area in Dholavira's middle town (NCERT Class 6 Figures 6.4 and 6.5). These photographs show a broad street between excavated structures at Kalibangan and a street bordered by building foundations at Dholavira. Cross streets are visible in the Dholavira housing area.

The comparison shows both planning and variation. Broad streets, organised building areas and similar construction quality are important features, while Dholavira's three zones and stone foundations prevent us from treating all Harappan cities as identical.

What was the Great Bath, and why is its purpose debated?

The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro was a small but elaborate tank measuring about 12 metres by 7 metres. Carefully laid bricks formed its structure. Waterproofing materials, including natural bitumen, a form of tar, were applied over the bricks.

Small rooms surrounded the tank, and one of them contained a well. A drain in one corner allowed the tank to be emptied from time to time and refilled with fresh water. These features show care in constructing and maintaining the tank.

Photograph: Mohenjo-daro's Great Bath (NCERT Class 6 Figure 6.6). The photograph shows a sunken rectangular brick tank, surrounding brick walls and steps descending into it. These are visible structural features; the photograph itself does not establish what activities took place there.

Which explanations have been proposed?

Archaeologists proposed a public bath, a bath for the royal family only, or a tank used for religious rituals. Rituals are ceremonial practices connected here with religion. The public-bath interpretation is now ruled out because most houses in Mohenjo-daro had individual bathrooms.

The remaining interpretations should not be turned into established facts. The existence of the tank is clear, but its precise purpose remains debated. Its name, “Great Bath”, does not by itself settle who used it or why.

This distinction is central to studying ancient buildings. Measurements, materials, a well and a drain describe surviving physical evidence. Identifying particular users or religious functions requires interpretation. No inscription, text or traveller's account provides an explanation of this structure.

How did Harappans manage water and cleanliness?

Water management, the organisation of water supply, storage and removal, was important in Harappan life. Homes often had separate bathing areas connected to a larger drainage network. Drains generally ran beneath streets and carried waste water away.

In Mohenjo-daro, inhabitants drew water from hundreds of brick wells. About 700 wells have been counted. They seem to have been regularly maintained and used for several centuries. This is evidence of continuing attention to water supply, rather than construction alone.

How did Dholavira store water?

A reservoir is a large natural or artificial place for storing water. In other regions, people may have obtained water from ponds, nearby streams or human-made reservoirs. Dholavira, in Gujarat's Rann of Kutch, provides a striking example of reservoir construction.

At least six large reservoirs were built with stones or cut into rock at Dholavira. Most were linked through underground drains for efficient water harvesting and distribution. Water harvesting means collecting water for use. The largest reservoir measured 73 metres in length.

Photograph: Rock-cut reservoir at Dholavira (NCERT Class 6 Figure 6.8). The photograph shows a large sunken storage space with steep sides and steps. This particular reservoir is 33 metres long; it is not the 73-metre-long largest reservoir.

Building reservoirs involved many workers, and keeping them useful required cleaning from time to time. This raises questions about who organised the work, issued instructions and managed maintenance. Municipal administration means the management of a town or city.

The organised structures invite discussion about administration, but the exact arrangements are not settled. It would be unsafe to invent a named ruler, a fixed system of payment or a particular office responsible for the reservoirs.

Wells, reservoirs and drains performed related but different roles. Wells provided water, reservoirs stored it, and household drainage carried used water away. Studying these together reveals the importance given to both supply and cleanliness.

How did different social groups support farming and city life?

Harappan life involved connected activities in villages and cities. Farmers produced food, craftspeople made goods, and traders exchanged them. Social groups here refers to people carrying out different activities, without assuming that their exact social ranks are known.

Farmers and village communities

Many settlements stood along large or small rivers. Rivers supplied water and enriched nearby soil, making the banks useful for agriculture. Hundreds of small rural settlements managed intense agricultural activity. Cities could survive only if enough agricultural produce reached them daily.

Harappans grew cereals, or grain crops, including barley, wheat, some millets and sometimes rice, as well as pulses and varied vegetables. Pulses are crops such as beans, peas and lentils. They were also the first in Eurasia, the combined land region of Europe and Asia, to grow cotton for weaving into clothes.

They made farming tools, including the plough, a tool used to work the soil. A small clay model of a plough was found at Banawali in Haryana. Some Harappan farming tools continue to be used by modern farmers.

People obtaining and preparing food

Harappans domesticated animals for meat and fished in rivers and the sea. Domestication means bringing animals under human care and control. Numerous animal and fish bones found in excavations provide evidence of these activities.

Scientific examination of clay pots has revealed dairy products, turmeric, ginger and banana. Dairy products are foods obtained from milk. Together with crop and bone evidence, these remains show a diverse diet rather than dependence on a single food.

Craftspeople and traders

Craftspeople, workers skilled in making objects, produced ornaments, tools, pottery and other goods. Traders connected cities within the civilisation and exchanged goods with other cultures inside and outside India. Their activities depended on materials, skills and transport routes.

These groups help explain why productive agriculture belongs among civilisation's main features. Food from villages supported urban life, while craft production and trade formed other parts of the same society. Village and city life were closely connected.

How did crafts and trade connect Harappans with distant regions?

Harappans traded actively with nearby and distant cities in their civilisation and with other cultures inside and outside India. Their exports, goods sent out in exchange, included ornaments, timber and some objects of daily use, probably also gold and cotton, and possibly some food items.

What they received as imports, goods brought in through exchange, is less clear. Imports probably included copper because this metal was not so common in their own region. The words “probably” and “possibly” distinguish these suggestions from more firmly identified goods.

Which skills supported ornament and metal production?

Carnelian is a reddish semiprecious stone found mostly in Gujarat. The most favoured ornaments were carnelian beads. Craftspeople developed special techniques to drill holes for strings and decorate the beads. They also worked hard conch shells into bangles using sophisticated techniques.

Harappans mastered copper-working. Copper is a soft metal; adding tin produces bronze, which is harder than copper. Bronze was used for tools, pots, pans and some figurines, or small modelled figures.

Photographs: Harappan carnelian beads from Susa and ivory comb from Oman (NCERT Class 6 Figures 6.10 and 6.11). The pictures show reddish carnelian beads, some with decoration, excavated at Susa in present-day Iran, and a decorated ivory comb with teeth found on Oman's coast. The comb is about 7 centimetres long.

How were goods transported?

Traders used land routes and rivers, and travelled by sea to more distant destinations. Maritime means connected with the sea. This was India's first intensive maritime activity. Quite a few Harappan settlements lay in coastal Gujarat and Sindh.

Lothal, a small settlement in Gujarat, had a huge basin measuring 217 metres in length and 36 metres in width. The basin must have been a dockyard, a structure for receiving and sending boats carrying goods onwards.

Trade therefore connects several kinds of evidence: carefully made products, objects found far from their place of origin, coastal settlements and transport facilities. Bead-making and shell-working show technical skill, while overseas finds show connections beyond the civilisation's own settlements.

Goods, materials and transport should be kept distinct when explaining this network. Carnelian was a material for ornaments; beads were finished goods; and land, river and sea routes provided ways to move goods between places.

What do seals reveal about writing and trade?

Archaeologists have found thousands of small seals in Harappan settlements. These are small objects bearing designs and signs. Traders needed to identify their goods and one another, and this seems to have been the seals' chief purpose.

Seals were generally made of steatite, a soft stone hardened by heating. They measure only a few centimetres. They generally show an animal figure with several writing signs above it. A writing system uses signs to communicate and keep records.

Photographs: Harappan seals showing a unicorn, a bull and a horned tiger (NCERT Class 6 Figures 6.13-1 to 6.13-3). The three pictures show a unicorn, a bull and a horned tiger, from left to right, with signs above the animals. A unicorn is an imagined animal with one horn.

What can and cannot be concluded?

The writing system and the symbolic meaning of the animal figures remain not understood. “Symbolic meaning” refers to an idea represented by an image. Recognising an animal on a seal is therefore different from knowing what that animal meant to its maker or user.

It is certain that seals somehow relate to trade activities. However, saying that identifying traders and goods seems to have been their chief purpose preserves the uncertainty about their exact use. These two statements express different levels of confidence.

Seals provide evidence that writing existed, even though the signs cannot yet be read with an agreed understanding. We should not invent translations, names of traders or messages for them. Their small size, material, designs and trade connection are useful evidence without such additions.

What do everyday and cultural objects show about Harappan life?

Harappan objects reveal daily needs, skilled production and leisure. Dholavira has yielded a bronze mirror, a terracotta pot, stone weights and a bronze chisel. Terracotta means fired clay; a chisel is a tool with a cutting edge for shaping material.

A stone gamesboard from Dholavira is about 25 centimetres long. A terracotta whistle from Karanpura in Rajasthan is about 4 centimetres long. Harappans designed games and toys to amuse both adults and children, showing that life included recreation as well as work.

How should cultural figures be described?

A statuette, or small statue, is often called the “Priest King”, although the identity of the person it represents is unknown. The name should not be treated as proof that the figure was a priest, a king or both.

The “Dancing Girl” is a bronze figurine from Mohenjo-daro, 10.8 centimetres high. Bangles cover an entire arm. Wearing bangles in this way is still visible in parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Photographs and drawings: Cultural and symbolic objects (NCERT Class 6 Figure 6.15). The pictures include the “Priest King” statuette, a seal bearing a swastika, and the Pashupati Seal with a seated three-faced deity surrounded by animals. Below are the “Dancing Girl”, a terracotta figure with joined palms and drawings of a decorated pot.

A deity is a god or goddess. “Pashupati Seal” names the pictured seal. The swastika is the bent-armed cross symbol shown on another seal. The seated terracotta figure has its palms joined in namaste, a gesture of greeting.

The design on the Lothal pot seems to tell the thirsty crow story, in which the bird finds a clever way to drink water at the bottom of a pot. This possible interpretation must not be presented as a certain reading.

These objects bring together art, gestures, ornaments, games and household needs. They also show the importance of distinguishing familiar-looking forms from securely known identities and meanings. A recognisable gesture can be described without inventing a complete account of Harappan beliefs.

Why did urban life decline, and what legacy survived?

Around 1900 BCE, the Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation began to fall apart. Cities were abandoned one by one. If inhabitants remained, they adopted rural lifestyles in the changed environment. It appears that the earlier government or administration no longer existed.

Harappans gradually scattered across hundreds, if not thousands, of small rural settlements. A rural lifestyle offered easier access to food and water. Cities depended on villages for food and sometimes water, making changes in these supplies important to urban survival.

Which factors help explain the decline?

Two factors are currently agreed upon. First, climatic change affected much of the world from 2200 BCE onward. Reduced rainfall brought a drier phase. This would have made agriculture more difficult and could have reduced food supplies to cities.

Second, the Sarasvatī River dried up in its central basin. Cities there, such as Kalibangan and Banawali, were suddenly abandoned. There could have been other factors too, so the two explanations should not be described as an exhaustive list.

An older explanation proposed warfare or invasions, but there is no trace of either. Harappans do not seem to have kept an army or weapons of war. As far as the evidence goes, the civilisation seems to have been relatively peaceful.

Did the disappearance of cities end all Harappan traditions?

No. Much of Harappan culture and technology survived and passed into the next phase of Indian civilisation. Legacy means what is passed on from an earlier society. Urban decline therefore does not mean that every skill, practice and cultural form disappeared.

The sequence links environment, food production and settlement. The civilisation eventually declined, probably because of climatic and environmental changes. People returned to rural life, while much of their culture and technology continued. This combines major change with survival rather than treating decline as total extinction.

Glossary

• Civilisation — An advanced stage of society involving cities, administration, crafts, trade, writing, cultural ideas and productive agriculture.
• Metallurgy — Techniques for extracting, purifying and combining metals, together with the study of metals and their properties.
• Urbanism — The planning, development and management of cities, generally including water management and drainage.
• Tributary — A river that flows into a larger river or a lake.
• Fortification — A massive wall surrounding a settlement or city, generally built for protective purposes.
• Elite — The higher layers of society, such as rulers, officials, administrators and often priests.
• Reservoir — A large natural or artificial place in which water is stored.
• Pulses — A category of crops that includes beans, peas and lentils.
• Carnelian — A reddish semiprecious stone found mostly in Gujarat and used to make favoured Harappan beads.
• Bronze — A metal produced by adding tin to copper, making it harder than copper.
• Dockyard — A structure used to receive and send boats for the further transportation of goods.
• Steatite — A soft stone generally used for Harappan seals and hardened through heating.
• Maritime activity — Activity connected with the sea, including transport to distant trading destinations.
• Internal trade — The exchange of goods within a city or a region.
• External trade — The exchange of goods with distant regions or other parts of the world.

Common errors and misconceptions

• Misconception: Harappan and Indus-Sarasvatī refer to separate civilisations. Correct: They are different names for the same civilisation; Harappa gave its name because it was the first city excavated.
• Misconception: Every city had exactly two parts. Correct: Most had an upper and lower town, but Dholavira had three distinct zones.
• Misconception: The Great Bath was certainly a public swimming bath. Correct: The public-bath interpretation is ruled out; its precise purpose remains debated.
• Misconception: Dholavira's largest reservoir was 33 metres long. Correct: The photographed reservoir was 33 metres long, while the largest measured 73 metres.
• Misconception: Harappans certainly exported gold, cotton and food in the same way as ornaments. Correct: Gold and cotton were probably exported, while some food items were possibly exported.
• Misconception: The seals have been translated and reveal traders' names. Correct: Their writing system and animal symbolism remain not understood.
• Misconception: The “Priest King” proves who ruled the cities. Correct: The identity of the represented figure is unknown.
• Misconception: Invasion certainly destroyed the cities and ended all Harappan culture. Correct: There is no trace of invasion; much culture and technology survived urban decline.

Exam-style questions with model answers

Q1. Most Harappan cities had an upper town, where the local elite probably lived, and a lower town, where common people lived. Dholavira had three zones. Using this information, give two reasons to avoid saying that every city had two parts occupied by certainly identified groups. [2 marks]

1. Dholavira had three zones, so a two-part arrangement did not apply to every city.
2. The elite probably lived in the upper town; their residence is not stated with certainty.

Q2. Harappan homes often had bathing areas connected to drains generally beneath streets. Mohenjo-daro had hundreds of brick wells. Dholavira had at least six large reservoirs, most linked by underground drains for water harvesting and distribution. Explain three aspects of water management using only these facts. [3 marks]

1. Household bathing areas connected to drains, generally beneath streets, show attention to removing waste water from homes as part of a wider system.
2. Hundreds of brick wells at Mohenjo-daro provided places from which inhabitants could draw their water.
3. Dholavira stored water in at least six large reservoirs, with most connected through underground drains for water harvesting and distribution.

Q3. The Great Bath measured about 12 metres by 7 metres. Its carefully laid bricks had waterproofing, including natural bitumen. Surrounding rooms included one with a well, and a corner drain allowed emptying and refilling. Describe four features, retaining the approximate measurement. [4 marks]

1. The Great Bath was an elaborate tank about 12 metres long and 7 metres wide, so its dimensions should remain approximate.
2. Waterproofing materials, including natural bitumen, were applied over carefully laid bricks.
3. Small rooms surrounded the tank, and one of these rooms contained a well.
4. A drain in one corner allowed the tank to be emptied from time to time and then refilled with fresh water.

Q4. Consider these findings: precisely planned large cities; household drains carrying waste water away; productive villages supplying cities; skilled drilling of carnelian beads for strings and their decoration; and trade by land, river and sea. Explain five Harappan achievements, using one finding for each point. [5 marks]

1. Precisely planned large cities show achievement in organising urban spaces. Their development involved planning rather than simply placing buildings without an overall arrangement.
2. Household drains carried waste water away, showing attention to cleanliness through a connected system serving the needs of urban homes.
3. Productive villages supplied cities with agricultural produce. This supported urban life by providing food beyond the needs of the villages themselves.
4. Drilling and decorating carnelian beads required specialised craft skills, turning a stone material into ornaments that could be strung and worn.
5. Trade by land, river and sea connected different places, allowing the movement of goods through several kinds of transport routes.

Q5. Use these facts to explain urban decline and continuity in five points: rainfall decreased from 2200 BCE onward; this would have hindered farming and could have reduced city food supplies; the Sarasvatī dried in its central basin and Kalibangan and Banawali were suddenly abandoned; around 1900 BCE cities began being abandoned one by one; people spread into rural settlements, while much culture and technology survived. [5 marks]

1. Climatic change from 2200 BCE onward brought reduced rainfall and a drier phase. Environmental conditions affecting agriculture therefore changed before the wider urban decline.
2. This would have made farming more difficult and could have reduced food supplies to cities. The possible effect on food must retain that uncertainty.
3. The Sarasvatī dried in its central basin, and cities there, including Kalibangan and Banawali, were suddenly abandoned.
4. Around 1900 BCE, cities began to be abandoned one by one. People gradually spread into small rural settlements instead of continuing the earlier urban pattern.
5. Much Harappan culture and technology survived. The disappearance of cities therefore did not mean that every aspect of Harappan life ended.

Q6. Harappan seals were generally made of steatite hardened by heating, generally showed animals with writing signs above them, and certainly related somehow to trade. Their writing and animal symbolism remain not understood. Explain their material, appearance and evidential limits in three points. [3 marks]

1. The seals were generally made of steatite, a soft stone that was hardened through heating, so this material should not be described as universal.
2. They generally displayed animal figures with writing signs above them, providing evidence of a writing system.
3. They certainly related somehow to trade, but their writing and animal symbolism remain not understood, preventing secure translations or exact explanations of the images.

Q7. Harappans grew cereals, or grain crops, including barley, wheat, some millets and sometimes rice, with pulses and vegetables. Animal and fish bones show meat consumption and fishing. Pot examinations reveal dairy products, turmeric, ginger and banana. Cotton was woven into clothes. Explain four conclusions from this evidence. [4 marks]

1. The range of cereals, pulses and vegetables shows varied cultivation, while rice must be described as grown sometimes rather than everywhere.
2. Animal and fish bones provide evidence that Harappans consumed meat and also obtained food by fishing.
3. Remains in pots show that dairy products, turmeric, ginger and banana also formed part of their diverse food use.
4. Cotton served clothing production through weaving, showing that cultivation provided materials for purposes beyond eating.

Q8. Harappans exported ornaments, timber and some daily-use objects, probably also gold and cotton, and possibly some food. Imports are less clear but probably included copper. Summarise these trade claims in four points without changing their certainty. [4 marks]

1. Ornaments, timber and some objects of daily use were exported, forming the clearly identified exports in the supplied information.
2. Gold and cotton were probably also exported; the evidence here should not be presented as establishing them with complete certainty.
3. Some food items were possibly exported, which is a weaker claim than saying that food exports certainly occurred.
4. Imports are less clear, but probably included copper. Both the uncertainty about imports generally and the probability attached to copper should remain.

Key takeaways

• Civilisation involves connected developments in administration, cities, crafts, trade, writing, cultural expression and productive agriculture.
• Harappan towns developed into cities around 2600 BCE, forming what is called India's First Urbanisation.
• The civilisation extended beyond the Indus region, including important settlements in the Sarasvatī basin and Gujarat.
• Precisely planned cities, household drainage, wells and reservoirs reveal attention to construction, water management and cleanliness.
• Villages supplied cities with agricultural produce, while craftspeople and traders supported other connected activities.
• Seals provide evidence of writing and trade, but their signs and animal symbolism remain not understood.
• The Great Bath's purpose and the identity of the “Priest King” remain uncertain despite the survival of these objects.
• Urban decline began around 1900 BCE, probably through climatic and environmental changes, while much culture and technology survived.

Test yourself

What does BCE mean, and when did the transition to Harappan cities happen?

BCE means Before Common Era. The transition from towns to cities happened around 2600 BCE.

Why are the people called Harappans?

Harappa was the first city of the civilisation to be excavated, in 1920 to 1921, giving its name to the people and civilisation.

How did Dholavira's city divisions differ from the usual arrangement?

Dholavira had three distinct zones, while most cities had an upper town and a lower town.

What is the difference between the two Dholavira reservoir lengths?

The largest reservoir measured 73 metres in length, while the rock-cut reservoir pictured in Figure 6.8 measured 33 metres. The difference was 73 − 33 = 40 metres.

How is bronze produced, and why was it useful?

Adding tin to copper produces bronze, which is harder than copper. Harappans used it for tools, pots, pans and some figurines.

What was the size and interpreted purpose of Lothal's basin?

It measured 217 metres by 36 metres and must have been a dockyard for receiving and sending boats carrying goods.

Why should the thirsty crow interpretation of the Lothal pot remain tentative?

The design seems to tell that story. Its possible meaning should not be changed into a certain identification.

Did urban decline erase all Harappan culture?

No. Much Harappan culture and technology survived and passed into the next phase of Indian civilisation.