Gender, Religion and Caste

These notes cover the Class 10 Civics (Democratic Politics) chapter on Gender, Religion and Caste. Every society has some kind of social difference. What matters in a democracy is how these differences are expressed in politics, and whether they divide people or give more people a fair voice. Use these notes to revise the chapter, then read the section at the end to see how the very same ideas are shaping India right now.

Social Divisions and their Forms

The political expression of social differences is possible and is sometimes quite desirable in a democratic system. In democratic politics, three kinds of social difference most often take the form of social divisions:

1. Gender
2. Religion
3. Caste

Social Divisions based on Gender

Gender is often thought to be natural and unchangeable, but gender differences are based on social expectations and stereotypes. The way boys and girls are brought up shapes what society expects of them. India is largely a male dominated society. Such a society is called a patriarchal society.

This is reflected in the sexual division of labour, where in most families women are expected to do all the work inside the home while men work outside it. This division is not the result of any inadequacy in men or women. It is simply how society has defined the roles of both genders.

The work that men and women do is not valued or recognised equally, which results in discrimination. This division limits the role of women in public life in most societies. It was visible in the limited voting and political rights women were given for a long time.

What are feminist movements?

To protest against these inequalities, women around the world organised themselves, demanding equal political rights and legal status and better educational and career opportunities. Women's movements that aim at equality in personal and family life are called feminist movements.

These movements have helped in the social and political mobilisation of women into more active public life and have opened up opportunities that were earlier restricted for women. This can be seen in the high participation of women in public life in Scandinavian countries such as Sweden, Norway and Finland.

What are some of the discriminations that women face in a patriarchal society?

Women face disadvantage, discrimination and oppression in various ways in a patriarchal society, such as:

• Low literacy: The literacy rate among women is only 54 per cent, compared with 76 per cent among men. An even smaller proportion of girl students go on to higher studies. Girls often drop out of schools and colleges because parents prefer to spend their resources on their boys' education rather than spending equally on their sons and daughters.
• Pay gap: The proportion of women among the highly paid and highly valued jobs is still very small. On average, an Indian woman works one hour more than an average man every day, yet much of her work is unpaid and therefore often not valued. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 provides that equal wages should be paid for equal work.
• Female foeticide: In many parts of India, parents prefer to have sons and find ways to have the girl child aborted before she is born. Such sex-selective abortion led to a decline in the child sex ratio (the number of girl children per thousand boys) in the country to merely 914.
• Exploitation and harassment: There are reports of various kinds of harassment, exploitation and violence against women. Women are not always safe even within their own homes from beating, harassment and other forms of domestic violence, and urban areas have become particularly unsafe for women.
• Low political representation: This has led feminist movements to conclude that women will get equality and attention to their problems only when they hold power. This can be ensured through political representation.

In India, the proportion of women in the legislature has been very low, with less than 10 per cent representation in the Lok Sabha and less than 5 per cent in state assemblies. The 73rd and 74th amendments to the Indian Constitution, however, reserved one-third (33 per cent) of the seats in local bodies for women. Most ministers in the cabinet have usually been men, even when the Prime Minister or Chief Minister is a woman.

Social Divisions based on Religion

The world today has a great deal of religious diversity. Unlike gender differences, religious differences are often openly expressed in politics.

Gandhi used to say that politics cannot be separated from religion. By this he meant that politics should be guided by the moral values of all religions, which would help develop ethical political practices.

Ideas, ideals and values drawn from different religions can, and perhaps should, play a role in politics. People should be able to express in politics their needs, interests and demands as members of a religious community.

Unfortunately, religion is sometimes expressed in politics as a divisive force, where religious differences result in violence in the form of riots. Religious minorities often find themselves victimised and persecuted, so they demand that the government provide them protection. Minorities have also demanded that the government change the personal laws or family laws of all religions that discriminate against women, and there has been a demand for a Uniform Civil Code in this regard.

What is communalism?

Communalism is the idea that religion should form the basis of the nation. Some of its key features are:

• The beliefs of one religion are presented as superior to those of other religions.
• The demands of one religious group are formed in opposition to another.
• State power is used to establish the domination of one religious group over the rest.

This manner of using religion in politics is called communal politics. It is based on the idea that religion is the principal basis of social community. In its extreme form, communalism leads to the belief that people belonging to different religions cannot live as equal citizens within one nation, so either one group has to dominate the rest or they have to form different nations.

Communalism can take various forms in politics:

• Everyday beliefs: The most common expression of communalism is in everyday beliefs. These routinely involve religious bias, stereotypes of religious communities and a belief in the superiority of one's own religion over others.
• Political dominance and mobilisation: A communal mind often leads to a quest for the political dominance of one's own religious community. Political mobilisation on religious lines is another frequent form. It involves the use of sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeals and even plain fear to bring the followers of one religion together in the political arena.
• Violence: Sometimes communalism takes its most ugly form of communal violence, riots and massacre.

What is a secular state?

India is a secular state. There is no official religion for the Indian state, and the Constitution does not give special status to any religion. The Constitution provides to all individuals and communities the freedom to profess, practise and propagate any religion, or to follow none.

The Constitution also prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion. At the same time, it allows the state to intervene in the affairs of religion in order to ensure equality within religious communities. For example, it bans untouchability as an offence.

Social Divisions based on Caste

Unlike gender and religion, caste division is special to India. All societies have some form of social inequality and division of labour, and in most societies occupations are passed on from one generation to another. The caste system is an extreme form of this. What makes it different is that hereditary occupational division was sanctioned by rituals. Members of the same caste group were supposed to form a community that practised the same or similar occupation, married within the caste group and did not eat with members of other caste groups.

The caste system was based on the exclusion of, and discrimination against, the outcaste groups, who were subjected to the inhuman practice of untouchability.

Caste in politics

When parties choose candidates in elections, they keep in mind the caste composition of the electorate and nominate candidates from different castes so as to gather the support needed to win. When governments are formed, political parties usually take care that representatives of different castes and tribes find a place in the cabinet.

Politics in caste

Caste itself is shaped by politics too. Each caste group tries to become bigger by including within it neighbouring castes or sub-castes that were earlier excluded. Various caste groups have to enter into coalitions with other castes or communities, and so they enter into dialogue and negotiation. New kinds of caste groups, such as backward and forward caste groupings, have come up in the political arena.

The different roles caste plays in politics

Caste plays different kinds of roles in politics. In some situations, the expression of caste differences in politics gives many disadvantaged communities the space to demand their share of power. In this sense, caste politics has helped people from Dalit and OBC castes gain better access to decision making. Several political and non-political organisations have demanded and agitated for an end to discrimination against particular castes, and for more dignity and better access to land, resources and opportunities.

At the same time, an exclusive focus on caste can produce negative results. As in the case of religion, politics based on caste identity alone is not very healthy in a democracy. It can divert attention from other pressing issues like poverty, development and corruption, and in some cases caste division leads to tension, conflict and even violence.

The current status of caste

Partly due to the efforts of our great leaders and partly due to other socio-economic changes, caste and the caste system in modern India have undergone great changes. With economic development, large-scale urbanisation, the growth of literacy and education, occupational mobility and the weakening of the position of landlords in villages, the old notions of caste hierarchy are breaking down. In urban areas today, it often does not matter who is walking next to us on a street or eating at the next table in a restaurant. The Constitution of India prohibited caste-based discrimination and laid the foundation for policies to reverse the injustices of the caste system.

Yet caste has not disappeared from contemporary India. Some of the older aspects of caste have persisted. Even now, most people marry within their own caste or tribe, and untouchability has not ended completely despite the constitutional ban. The effects of centuries of advantage and disadvantage continue to be felt today.

This is why there is a disproportionately large presence of upper castes among the urban middle class. The caste groups that had access to education under the old system have done very well in acquiring modern education as well, while groups that were prohibited from acquiring education have naturally lagged behind. Caste continues to be closely linked to economic status:

• The average economic status of caste groups still follows the old hierarchy. The upper castes are best off, the Dalits and Adivasis are worst off, and the backward classes are in between.
• The proportion of people living in extreme poverty (below the official poverty line) is much higher for the lowest castes and much lower for the upper castes.
• The upper castes are heavily over-represented among the rich, while the lower castes are severely under-represented.

Why it still matters

This chapter is not only about the past. Gender, religion and caste are live issues in Indian democracy right now, and a few recent developments show exactly why the topic is worth understanding.

Women in Parliament and the reservation law

The notes above point out that women have long been under-represented in India's legislatures. That is still true. In the 2024 general election, only 74 women were elected to the 18th Lok Sabha, about 13.6 per cent of the house, which was actually a small drop from the previous Lok Sabha. To change this, Parliament passed the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, also called the Women's Reservation Act, in September 2023. It is the 106th amendment to the Constitution, and it reserves one-third of the seats in the Lok Sabha and in every state assembly for women. It has not started working yet, because it takes effect only after the next delimitation (the redrawing of constituencies) that follows a fresh census. Think of it as the national version of the 33 per cent reservation that the 73rd and 74th amendments already gave women in local bodies.

Counting caste again

The notes explain that caste still shapes economic status in India. This is exactly why caste data has become a major political debate. On 30 April 2025, the union government decided that the next national census will record every person's caste. This will be the first time caste is counted in the regular ten-yearly census since 1931, almost a hundred years ago. Supporters argue that accurate numbers are needed to plan fair reservations and welfare. Critics worry that it could deepen caste identities in politics, which is the very risk this chapter warns about.

Religion and the secular state

The chapter's point that a secular state treats all religions equally, and that some groups demand a Uniform Civil Code, is also being tested today. Debates over common personal laws, minority rights and the place of religion in public life appear in the news almost every week. The ideas in these notes, communalism, secularism and equal citizenship, are the exact tools you need to follow those debates thoughtfully rather than emotionally.

To see how these social divisions connect to careers, current events and other school subjects, explore the Learnacy Hub. You can find more revision guides in the Class 10 Political Science notes collection, or browse the full resources library for other subjects.

Sources

1. https://visionias.in/current-affairs/news-today/2024-06-06/polity-and-governance/74-women-elected-to-18th-lok-sabha-accounting-for-136-representation-in-lok-sabha
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_census

Key takeaways

• In a democracy, social differences like gender, religion and caste can be expressed politically, but it matters whether they divide people or give everyone a fair voice.
• India is a patriarchal society where women handle domestic work while men work outside, resulting in discrimination through lower literacy, unequal pay, and minimal political representation.
• Women face specific disadvantages including 54% literacy (vs 76% for men), pay gaps despite working longer hours, female foeticide, harassment, and under 10% representation in Lok Sabha.
• The 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments reserved one-third of seats in local bodies for women to increase political representation.
• Communalism uses religion to divide society by promoting one religion as superior, forming demands against other groups, and using state power to establish domination.

Test yourself

What is a patriarchal society?

A society where men dominate, reflected in the sexual division of labour where women are expected to do all housework inside the home while men work outside it.

What are feminist movements?

Women's movements that protest against inequalities and demand equal political rights, legal status, and better educational and career opportunities in personal and family life.

What are the key features of communalism?

Communalism involves presenting one religion's beliefs as superior to others, forming demands in opposition to other religious groups, and using state power to establish domination of one religion over the rest.