Geographical Diversity of India | CBSE Class 7 Geography Notes

This note covers India's major landforms, the formation and ranges of the Himalayas, Ladakh, the Gangetic Plains, the Thar Desert, the Aravalli Hills, the Peninsular Plateau, coasts, islands, the Sundarbans, the Northeast, and the connections between geography and people's lives.

What makes India's geography diverse?

Geographical diversity means variety in the physical features of an area. A landform is a physical feature of Earth's surface. India contains snowy mountains, river-watered plains, deserts, elevated plateaus, coastlines and islands. These different environments shape people's lives, occupations and cultures.

How can we recognise the major landforms?

Mountains rise much higher than their surroundings and have steep slopes and narrow summits. Plains have extensive flat or gently undulating surfaces, meaning surfaces with gentle rises and falls. They have no large hills or deep valleys.

A plateau rises above surrounding land and has a more or less flat surface; some of its sides are often steep slopes. A peninsula is land surrounded by water on three sides. An island is land surrounded by water on all sides.

India is the seventh-largest country in the world and lies in Asia. The Indian Subcontinent is a region within Asia comprising India and its neighbours Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. The word subcontinent identifies a region within a larger continent.

Often, for discussion, five regions are considered: the great mountain zone, the plains of the Ganga and the Indus, the desert region, the southern peninsula, and the islands. This broad grouping helps organise a journey across India's varied landscapes.

How does a physical map help?

A physical map represents natural features. Its legend explains its colours and symbols. On India's physical map, different colours indicate altitude, or height above sea level. Sea level means the average level of the ocean surface.

On an outline map, label the Himalayas in the north, the Thar Desert and Arabian Sea to the west, the Indian Ocean to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the east.

These natural features separate India from the rest of the continent and have helped shape its climate, culture and history. Climate means the usual weather conditions of a place over a long period.

How did the Himalayas form, and are they still growing?

The Himalayas form a vast mountain range in the north. Their name combines the Sanskrit words hima, meaning snow, and ālaya, meaning abode or dwelling. Thus, Himalaya means abode of snow. The range is about 2500 kilometres long.

What happened when India moved north?

1. India was once part of a much larger landmass called Gondwana, with Africa as its neighbour.
2. The Indian landmass broke away and slowly moved northwards.
3. About 50 million years ago, it reached and collided with Eurasia, the landmass comprising Europe and Asia.
4. As India pushed against Eurasia, the land between them crumpled and rose, forming the Himalayan mountains.

A carpet that wrinkles when pushed provides a useful comparison for this crumpling. The mountains resulted from the movement and collision of landmasses. Their formation was a process extending over a very long period.

The map-like diagram shows successive positions of the Indian landmass approaching Eurasia. India, the Indian Ocean and Sri Lanka are labelled. The positions trace a northward journey towards present-day India.

See Fig. 1.4 in your NCERT textbook

What do the measurements tell us?

India is still pushing into Asia very slowly, and the Himalayas are still growing taller. The movement of India and the increase in mountain height are different measurements. Keep the word about with both annual figures because they are approximate.

How do the Himalayan ranges support different kinds of life?

The Himalayas are broadly categorised into three main ranges: the Himadri, the Himachal and the Shivalik Hills. Their differences in height, climate and vegetation help explain why settlements and living conditions vary within the mountain region.

Biodiversity means the variety of living organisms in an area. Flora refers to plant life, while fauna refers to animal life. The Himalayan region contains a wide variety of both, rather than one uniform mountain environment.

Why are they sometimes called the Water Tower of Asia?

Many Himalayan peaks exceed 8000 metres and are called the Eight Thousanders. The range extends across six Asian countries: India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Pakistan and Afghanistan. In summer, melting snow feeds rivers such as the Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra.

A tributary is a river that joins another river. The major rivers and their tributaries supply water for drinking, farming and industries to hundreds of millions of people. This explains why the Himalayas are sometimes called the Water Tower of Asia.

The Bhagirathi, a major tributary of the Ganga, begins at Gaumukh in Uttarakhand. Gaumukh means Cow's Mouth and lies at the edge of the Gangotri Glacier. A glacier is a large mass of ice that moves slowly over land.

How do people adapt to mountain conditions?

Traditional kath-kuni or dhajji-dewari houses in the western Himalayas combine local stone and wood. These materials help keep houses warm and resist damage during mild earthquakes. The qualification matters: resistance to mild earthquakes does not mean immunity to every earthquake.

The mountains also contain temples and monasteries, places of religious life and meditation. At the Great Himalayan National Park in Himachal Pradesh, the government and village communities living inside the park work to preserve biodiversity.

Why is Ladakh a cold desert?

A desert is a large, dry area with very little precipitation. Precipitation is water reaching the ground from the atmosphere as rain, snow, hail or other forms. Desert conditions therefore do not necessarily mean heat: Ladakh is a cold desert.

What are Ladakh's physical features?

Ladakh receives very little rainfall, and winter temperatures drop below −30°C. Here, °C means degrees Celsius, and the minus sign indicates a temperature below zero. Its rugged landscape includes rocky ground, deep valleys and lakes such as Pangong Tso; tso means lake.

The landscape is called moonland because it resembles the Moon's surface. Its mountains were folded when India collided with Eurasia. The folded area had been part of an ocean, so the rocks are made largely of sand and clay.

Erosion means the wearing away and removal of earth materials. Wind and rain have eroded these mountains into unusual shapes. Both the earlier folding and later erosion help explain the landscape seen today.

How do water, wildlife and people fit into this environment?

Pangong Tso has salty water, unlike most other lakes. Minerals dissolving from the surrounding mountains cause its saltiness. The word most is important: it does not mean every other lake contains fresh water.

Despite harsh conditions, Ladakh supports snow leopards, ibex and Tibetan antelopes. Himalayan people rear yaks for milk, meat, wool and dung, and also use them for transport. Ladakh is known for ancient monasteries and festivals such as Losar and the Hemis Festival.

Why do the Gangetic Plains support agriculture and transport?

South of the Himalayas lie the vast, fertile Gangetic Plains, also called the Northern Plains. Their rivers, soils and flat land have supported human life and civilisation. A large proportion of India's population lives in these plains.

How do rivers enrich the plains?

The Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra river systems, together with their extensive networks of tributaries, bring water and minerals. These minerals enrich the soil, making it highly fertile and suitable for abundant agriculture. The rivers also provide opportunities for generating electricity.

Sediments are particles of rock, sand and silt carried by rivers. Silt means fine earth particles. Rivers carry sediments from mountain areas and deposit them in floodplains, the plains formed by such river deposits. This contributes to the fertility of the soil.

The connection between mountains and plains is therefore practical. Water from the mountains enters river systems; rivers carry materials; and the plains receive water and fertile deposits. Farming depends on this connection between different geographical regions.

How does flat land help movement?

The flat surface of the Northern Plains has allowed an elaborate transportation network to develop. Roads and railways carry people and goods over long distances. Rivers such as the Ganga and Brahmaputra have also supported travel and trade for thousands of years.

Fertility and transport explain different advantages of the same region. A complete description should connect each advantage to its physical cause: mineral-enriched soil supports cultivation, while flat ground makes extensive land transport possible.

How have people adapted to the Thar Desert?

The Thar Desert, also called the Great Indian Desert, is a vast arid, or very dry, region. Most of it lies within India, across Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana. Its environment includes sand dunes, rugged ground and scarce water.

Sand dunes are hill-like accumulations of sand formed as wind shifts and shapes it. Sometimes they reach heights of 150 metres. This is a possible height of some dunes, not a height shared by every dune.

Very high daytime temperatures, cold nights and difficulty obtaining water discourage human and animal movement. These harsh conditions make the Thar a natural barrier. People living there have adapted their food habits, clothing and lifestyles to what the environment offers.

Case study: How does water scarcity shape daily life?

Women often travel long distances each day to collect water for their families. A traditional method of cleaning utensils uses sand to scour them. A little water can then provide a light rinse, and that water is reused for purposes such as watering a plant.

Water conservation means saving water and using it carefully. Rajasthan's taanka or kunds are special systems for collecting and storing rainwater, often for drinking. These practices connect everyday work with the need to protect scarce water supplies.

Photographs: Water collection and storage in the desert (NCERT Class 7 Figure 1.24). The left photograph shows women carrying water containers. The right photograph shows a covered circular rainwater-harvesting structure with steps. The two photographs place collection and storage side by side.

The Thar also contains important cultural places. Jaisalmer, known as the Golden City, lies in the desert. The Pushkar Mela takes place at its edge. These examples show that harsh physical conditions coexist with settlements, traditions and gatherings.

Why are the Aravalli Hills important?

East of the Thar Desert are the Aravalli Hills. They are among the oldest mountains in the world, some 2.5 billion years old. Most of their hills are between 300 and 900 metres high, and the range contains many peaks and ridges, long, narrow raised crests.

How do they influence the surrounding region?

The Aravallis extend across Delhi, Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat. They play an important role in the geography and climate of northwestern India. They act as a natural barrier, preventing the Thar Desert from expanding further eastward.

This connection makes location important. The desert lies on one side of the range, while the hills affect how that desert relates to areas farther east. A geographical feature can influence conditions beyond the ground it directly occupies.

What resources and historic places are found here?

The region contains marble, granite, zinc and copper. These resources have supported mining and construction for centuries. Mining means extracting useful materials from the Earth. Marble and granite are building stones, while zinc and copper are metals.

Evidence from ancient mines at Zawar shows that Indians mastered zinc extraction over eight centuries ago. Forts such as Chittorgarh, Kumbhalgarh and Ranthambore are also located in this region. The surrounding hills gave Kumbhalgarh a strong defensive setting.

The Aravallis therefore connect physical geography with several human activities: they form a barrier beside the desert, supply materials for economic activity, and provide locations for historic forts. Their significance goes beyond the height of individual hills.

What distinguishes the Peninsular Plateau and its rivers?

The Peninsular Plateau is a very old, roughly triangular land formation in central and southern India. It is a plateau because it rises above surrounding land, and peninsular because the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean surround the region on three sides.

How do the Western and Eastern Ghats differ?

The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats border the plateau. The Western Ghats are taller and run like a wall along the western coast. During the monsoon, the rainy season associated with seasonal winds, many waterfalls descend their steep slopes.

The northern Western Ghats are also called the Sahyadri Hills. The range has rich biodiversity and is home to many rivers. The Eastern Ghats are lower and broken into smaller hills along the eastern coast. The Deccan Plateau, an extensive highland area, lies between them.

Which way do the rivers flow?

The plateau tilts a little to the east, so a few rivers in this region flow towards the Bay of Bengal. The Godavari, Krishna and Mahanadi flow eastwards. The Kaveri also crosses the plateau from west to east. These rivers supply farming, industries and people.

There are west-flowing rivers too: the Narmada and Tapti drain into the Arabian Sea. Do not turn the eastward tilt into a claim that every river flows east. The exceptions are part of the region's river pattern.

Label the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats on an outline map. Add eastward arrows for the Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Mahanadi towards the Bay of Bengal, and westward arrows for the Narmada and Tapti towards the Arabian Sea.

How does the plateau support livelihoods?

The plateau contains minerals, forests and fertile land. Forests support communities including the Santhal, Gond, Baiga, Bhil and Korku, whose languages, traditions and ways of life are closely connected with Nature. These communities have distinct identities rather than a single shared way of life.

Rivers crossing uneven, rocky surfaces create waterfalls. These attract tourists and support irrigation, the supply of water to farmland, and hydroelectricity, electricity generated using the power of water. Jog Falls in Karnataka is an example of this connection between flowing water and electricity generation.

How do India's western and eastern coasts differ?

A coastline is the boundary where land meets the sea. India's coastline is over 7500 kilometres long. It includes beaches, rocky cliffs and forests. The western and eastern coastal regions differ in their nearby hills, rivers and coastal landforms.

What characterises the west coast?

The west coast runs from Gujarat to Kerala through Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka. Most rivers here begin in the Western Ghats, flow swiftly and form estuaries, river mouths where freshwater meets seawater. The Narmada and Tapti estuaries are the largest along this coast.

Short rivers leave alluvial deposits, materials deposited by flowing water, which help shape the coast. The region has important ports and cities that have been centres of economic activity for thousands of years. Mumbai is a major example on the west coast.

What characterises the east coast?

The east coast lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal, extending from the Ganga delta to Kanyakumari. It has wide plains and major river deltas. Chilika Lake and Pulicat Lake are important water bodies along this coast.

Pulicat is a lagoon, a body of water separated from a larger water body by a natural barrier. A delta is a landform built from sediments deposited at a river's mouth, the place where it enters another water body.

How does a delta form?

1. A river carries sediments towards its mouth.
2. It deposits these sediments where it meets a larger water body, such as an ocean, lake or another river.
3. Over time, the deposited sediments accumulate.
4. This build-up forms a triangular or fan-shaped area called a delta.

The Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Mahanadi form fertile deltas that are well suited to farming. Delta formation connects a river process with a human benefit: sediment accumulation builds land, and fertile delta land supports agriculture.

What are the main features of India's two major island groups?

India's islands are scattered across the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Its two major island groups are Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.

An archipelago is a group of islands. These island environments include distinctive wildlife, beaches, coral reefs and volcanoes. Coral reefs are structures built by tiny marine animals called corals; marine means relating to the sea.

A volcano is an opening through which molten rock and other materials can emerge from within the Earth. Volcanic islands are islands formed through volcanic activity.

Why do location and history matter?

The islands allow India to control a vast marine area, supporting fishing, exploration of resources and environmental protection. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands occupy an important position as outposts overlooking the ocean. They also support varied plant and animal life.

The Andaman Islands contain the Cellular Jail, where many freedom fighters were imprisoned under severe conditions. Its preservation keeps the memory of their sacrifices alive. The island region therefore has historical as well as geographical significance.

Barren Island, in the Andaman and Nicobar group, is India's only active volcano. It sometimes erupts, sending smoke and lava, molten rock at the surface, into the sky.

What makes the Sundarbans a distinctive delta region?

The Sundarbans lie in the delta of the Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. This region brings together river, sea and land. About half of the delta is in India, and the rest is in Bangladesh.

How are the landform and living environment connected?

Rivers deposit sediments at their mouths to build deltas. In the Sundarbans region, this setting combines river water, coastal conditions and land. The West Bengal part includes mangroves, trees and shrubs adapted to coastal environments influenced by tides and salty water.

The Sundarbans support many species, including the Royal Bengal Tiger. The region is also recognised as a World Heritage Site, a place recognised internationally for its exceptional cultural or natural importance. Its significance includes both its unusual environment and its living diversity.

Keep two qualifications clear when describing its location. The delta extends into both India and Bangladesh, and about half lies in India. Calling it entirely Indian or replacing the approximate share with an exact proportion would change the geographical description.

How do the hills of the Northeast connect Nature and culture?

The Garo, Khasi and Jantia Hills form part of the Meghalaya Plateau. The region is known for greenery, heavy rainfall and waterfalls. It experiences one of the highest rainfalls in the world, supporting forests, distinctive wildlife and fertile land.

Case study: What do living root bridges show?

Living root bridges are made by weaving tree roots over many years. They show the craftsmanship of communities in the Northeast and the connection between local natural materials and human needs. The bridges develop through patient work with living roots.

Mawlynnong, in Meghalaya's East Khasi Hills, is renowned as the cleanest village in Asia. It is known for maintained cleanliness, bamboo dustbins and environmentally friendly living practices. Living root bridges are another feature associated with the village.

Photographs: Landscape and culture in Meghalaya (NCERT Class 7 Figure 1.41). Three photographs show the Seven Sisters Waterfalls, people celebrating the Shad Suk Mynsiem festival, and a living root bridge near Nongriat village. The bridge photograph shows a woven structure crossing a wooded setting.

The Shad Suk Mynsiem festival expresses the Khasi people's gratitude towards Nature. Waterfalls, festivals and root bridges reveal different connections between landscape and culture: the physical setting, people's values and their practical craftsmanship.

What connects India's very different regions?

India's geographical features create varied conditions for soils, plants, animals, occupations and cultural traditions. Himalayan snow feeds rivers used far away in the plains. Plateau rivers support farming and power generation, while coasts and islands provide access to marine resources.

People also respond to local challenges through particular practices: stone-and-wood houses in the western Himalayas, rainwater storage in Rajasthan, and root bridges in Meghalaya. These examples explain how geographical diversity shapes daily life while contributing to India's rich civilisation.

Glossary

• Landform — A physical feature on Earth's surface, such as a mountain, plateau or plain.
• Altitude — The height of an object or place above average sea level.
• Plateau — Land rising above its surroundings with a more or less flat surface; some sides are often steep.
• Peninsula — A piece of land with water surrounding it on three sides.
• Tributary — A river that joins another river as part of a river system.
• Biodiversity — The variety of living organisms, including plants and animals, within an area.
• Desert — A large, dry area receiving very little precipitation; deserts may be hot or cold.
• Sand dune — A hill-like formation created when wind moves sand and shapes its accumulation.
• Water conservation — Saving water and using it carefully through practices such as collection, storage and reuse.
• Hydroelectricity — Electricity generated by using the power of moving or falling water.
• Estuary — A river mouth where the river's freshwater meets seawater along a coast.
• Delta — A triangular or fan-shaped landform built from sediments deposited at a river's mouth over time.
• Lagoon — A body of water separated from a larger water body by a natural barrier.
• Archipelago — A group of islands, such as Lakshadweep or the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Living root bridge — A bridge created by weaving tree roots together over the course of many years.

Common errors and misconceptions

• Misconception: Every desert is hot. Correct: Ladakh is a cold desert with very little rainfall and winter temperatures below −30°C. Dryness, rather than heat alone, identifies desert conditions.
• Misconception: All Himalayan ranges have the same conditions. Correct: The Himadri remain snow-covered throughout the year, the Himachal have a more moderate climate, and the Shivaliks form the lowest, outermost range.
• Misconception: Himalayan houses resist every earthquake. Correct: Traditional stone-and-wood construction resists damage in mild earthquakes. Removing the word mild makes the claim too strong.
• Misconception: Every plateau river flows into the Bay of Bengal. Correct: The Narmada and Tapti flow westwards into the Arabian Sea, even though the plateau tilts a little eastwards.
• Misconception: All of the Sundarbans delta lies in India. Correct: About half lies in India, and the rest is in Bangladesh. The share is approximate.
• Misconception: Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are in the same sea. Correct: Lakshadweep is in the Arabian Sea; the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are in the Bay of Bengal.
• Misconception: Every lake except Pangong Tso has fresh water. Correct: Pangong Tso is salty unlike most other lakes. Most does not mean all.
• Misconception: Himalayan height increases by five centimetres each year. Correct: India's movement into Asia is about five centimetres yearly; the increase in Himalayan height is about five millimetres yearly.

Exam-style questions with model answers

Q1. Ladakh receives very little rainfall, and its winter temperatures drop below −30°C, meaning minus thirty degrees Celsius. Use these two facts to explain the description “cold desert”. [2 marks]

1. Very little rainfall makes Ladakh a dry region and explains why it is described as a desert.
2. Winter temperatures below −30°C explain why this desert is described as cold, showing that deserts need not be hot.

Q2. The Himadri are the highest and most rugged Himalayan range and remain snow-covered throughout the year. The Himachal lie south of them and have a more moderate climate with human settlements. The Shivaliks are the lowest, outermost range, with rolling hills and forests. Compare these three ranges, giving one point for each. [3 marks]

1. The Himadri occupy the highest and most rugged part of the Himalayas. Their year-round snow cover distinguishes them from the other ranges described.
2. The Himachal lie south of the Himadri. Their more moderate climate supports human settlements, so their living conditions differ from those of the highest range.
3. The Shivaliks are the lowest and outermost range. Rolling hills and forests characterise this outer part of the Himalayan system.

Q3. India was once part of the much larger landmass Gondwana. It broke away and slowly moved north. About 50 million years ago, it collided with Eurasia. The land between them crumpled and rose. Arrange this information into four stages explaining Himalayan formation, preserving the time qualification. [4 marks]

1. The starting position was within Gondwana, a much larger landmass of which the Indian landmass was once a part.
2. India then broke away from Gondwana and slowly moved northwards, bringing it towards another large landmass.
3. About 50 million years ago, India reached Eurasia and collided with it. The word about keeps this date approximate.
4. The collision caused the land between them to crumple and rise. This process formed the Himalayan mountains.

Q4. In the Thar Desert, water is scarce. Women often travel long distances to fetch it for their families. Traditional utensil cleaning uses sand, followed by a little water for rinsing. Rinse water is reused for plants. Taanka or kunds collect rainwater, often for drinking. Explain five ways these facts connect water scarcity with daily life. [5 marks]

1. Scarcity makes obtaining water a demanding daily task. Women often travel long distances to bring water home for their families.
2. Scouring utensils with sand adapts cleaning to limited water availability. Sand does the main cleaning work in the traditional method described.
3. Using a little water for a light rinse keeps the water requirement small. This completes the cleaning process without using a large quantity.
4. Reusing rinse water for plants gives the same water another purpose. Water already used in cleaning can therefore help meet another household need.
5. Taanka or kunds collect and store rainwater, often for drinking. They link available rainfall with people's continuing need for a water supply.

Q5. Himalayan rivers bring water and minerals to the Gangetic Plains, making the soil fertile. The plains have flat land that supports extensive road and railway networks for moving people and goods over long distances. The Ganga and Brahmaputra have also been used for travel and trade for thousands of years. Explain three geographical advantages of the plains using these facts. [3 marks]

1. Rivers provide water and minerals that enrich the soil. These conditions make the plains fertile and support agriculture in the region.
2. Flat land permits extensive road and railway networks. These networks allow people and goods to move across the plains over long distances.
3. The rivers themselves provide transport routes. The long use of the Ganga and Brahmaputra for travel and trade shows this further advantage.

Q6. A river carries sediments, meaning particles of rock, sand and silt, to its mouth. It deposits them where it meets a larger water body. Over time the deposits build a triangular or fan-shaped area. The Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Mahanadi form fertile deltas suitable for farming. Explain the process and its agricultural importance in four points. [4 marks]

1. The river first transports sediments towards its mouth, carrying particles of rock, sand and silt along its course.
2. At its mouth, the river deposits these materials where it enters a larger body of water.
3. Over time, the deposited material accumulates into a triangular or fan-shaped landform. This landform is called a delta.
4. The Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Mahanadi form fertile deltas. Their fertile land is suitable for farming, connecting sediment deposition with agriculture.

Q7. Lakshadweep lies in the Arabian Sea near Kerala's Malabar coast and contains 36 coral islands; not all are inhabited. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie in the Bay of Bengal and contain more than 500 large and small volcanic islands in two groups. They include the Cellular Jail, which preserves the memory of imprisoned freedom fighters, and Barren Island, India's only active volcano, which sometimes erupts. Give five distinct points describing these island groups. [5 marks]

1. Lakshadweep is an island group in the Arabian Sea, close to Kerala's Malabar coast. This identifies its location relative to the Indian mainland.
2. Lakshadweep contains 36 islands made of coral. Not all are inhabited, so the total number does not represent a count of populated islands.
3. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie in the Bay of Bengal. They comprise more than 500 large and small volcanic islands in two groups.
4. The Cellular Jail gives the Andaman Islands historical importance. It preserves the memory of freedom fighters who were imprisoned there.
5. Barren Island belongs to the Andaman and Nicobar group. It is India's only active volcano and sometimes erupts, rather than erupting continuously.

Q8. The Peninsular Plateau tilts a little eastwards. The Godavari and Krishna flow towards the Bay of Bengal, while the Narmada and Tapti flow westwards into the Arabian Sea. Using these facts, explain why “every plateau river flows east” is incorrect. Give two points. [2 marks]

1. The Godavari and Krishna illustrate eastward flow towards the Bay of Bengal, consistent with the plateau tilting a little to the east.
2. The Narmada and Tapti flow westwards into the Arabian Sea. These examples disprove the claim that every plateau river flows east.

Key takeaways

• India's mountains, plains, deserts, plateau, coasts and islands create varied conditions for soils, wildlife, occupations and cultural life.
• The Himalayas formed through India's collision with Eurasia and continue to grow taller by about five millimetres each year.
• Summer snowmelt feeds Himalayan rivers whose water supports drinking, farming and industries far beyond the mountains.
• Ladakh is a cold desert, while the Thar illustrates adaptation to scarce water through careful use and rainwater storage.
• The Gangetic Plains combine fertile river-enriched soils with flat land that supports extensive transport networks.
• The Peninsular Plateau tilts a little eastwards, but the Narmada and Tapti flow westwards into the Arabian Sea.
• Lakshadweep lies in the Arabian Sea; the Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie in the Bay of Bengal.
• The Sundarbans delta and Meghalaya's living root bridges show different connections between natural environments and human life.

Test yourself

What is the difference between a plateau and a peninsula?

A plateau rises above surrounding land with a more or less flat surface. A peninsula has water around three sides.

What do the words hima and ālaya mean?

Hima means snow, and ālaya means abode or dwelling; together they explain the name Himalaya.

Where does the Bhagirathi begin?

It begins at Gaumukh, at the edge of the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand.

Why is Pangong Tso salty?

Minerals dissolve from the surrounding mountain areas and make the lake's water salty.

What are taanka or kunds used for?

They collect and store rainwater in Rajasthan, often for use as drinking water.

Which rivers provide exceptions to eastward flow across the plateau?

The Narmada and Tapti flow westwards and drain into the Arabian Sea.

How much of the Sundarbans delta lies in India?

About half of the delta lies in India; the rest lies in Bangladesh.

How are living root bridges created?

They are created by weaving tree roots over many years, demonstrating local craftsmanship.