Geopolitics

Introduction

"Foreign policy is a systematic statement of deliberately selected national interests." Hartmann

Every country has to decide how it will deal with the rest of the world. That set of choices is its foreign policy. In an age of deep globalisation, states now work with non-state actors, companies and international bodies more than ever before. To get the most out of multilateral cooperation, these relationships are constantly reviewed and monitored.

Foreign policies are shaped by the government through high-level decision making, because protecting national interests is vital. As Padelford and Lincoln observe, through foreign policy every state decides:

"what course it will pursue in world affairs within the limits of its strength and the realities of the external environment."

Geopolitics is the study of how geography, that is location, borders, seas and resources, shapes the politics between nations. For India, geography is close to destiny. You can read this alongside our other International Relations notes.

China, Pakistan and border disputes

India sits in the heart of Asia, the world's largest continent. Because it has been attacked by both China and Pakistan in the past, keeping open lines of communication is firmly in its interest. India is, unfortunately, surrounded by difficult relationships.

On the western side is Pakistan, with which India shares a bitter history of Partition, violence and wars. The relationship is a complex mix of layered mistrust, aggravated by the memory of Partition and hardened identities. Towards the east is China. The equation there began on a warm note with the idea of "Hindi Chini bhai bhai", but the friendliness was short lived once China disregarded India's territorial sovereignty.

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a bilateral project between Pakistan and China, and part of China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The BRI, launched in 2013, aims to link Southeast Asia, Central Asia, the Gulf region, Africa and Europe with a network of land and sea routes. India has been strongly critical of the CPEC because it passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, a territory disputed between India and Pakistan. POK has remained a major area of contention.

South-East and West Asia

India strives for the peaceful resolution of differences with its neighbours. Its security and vital interests are tied to the wider region of Asia, which serves as a gateway to both South-East Asia and West Asia. India seeks close ties with regional powers such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Japan and Vietnam. ASEAN countries have benefited from India's Look East Policy, now upgraded to the Act East Policy, which encourages economic and strategic cooperation.

As India grows, it must carry its neighbours along. If the development gap between India and its neighbours widens, it will create problems. To keep the neighbourhood from drifting in undesirable directions, India needs to invest real resources, attention and imagination. Even where South Asian countries recognise India as the natural regional leader, India must earn that respect rather than take it for granted.

India also has to watch West Asia closely, where it has huge stakes in energy and in the millions of Indians who live and work there. The withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan and the return of the Taliban to power added a new and uncertain dimension to the region.

India's approach: the Gujral Doctrine

When I.K. Gujral served as India's foreign minister and later as prime minister, he set out the Gujral Doctrine, a set of five principles to guide India's relations with its immediate neighbours. The core idea is that India's standing and strength are closely linked to the quality of its friendships in the region, so goodwill towards neighbours matters above all.

The five principles are:

1. With neighbours such as Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka, India does not ask for reciprocity but gives and accommodates what it can in good faith and trust.
2. No South Asian country should allow its territory to be used against the interests of another country in the region.
3. No country should interfere in the internal affairs of another.
4. All South Asian countries must respect each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
5. All disputes should be settled through peaceful bilateral negotiations.

Gujral argued that South Asia's regional ties would change fundamentally if these five principles were strictly followed. As Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee often noted, one can change one's friends but not one's neighbours, so India has consistently sought friendly and tension free relations with all of them.

Coastal waters and the SAGAR vision

A clear foreign policy objective for India is that its northern borders and its Indian Ocean waters stay peaceful and free of foreign military build up. Given its long coastline, India needs cordial relations with the other naval powers of the Indian Ocean. In 2015 India set out its strategic vision for the region, SAGAR: Security and Growth for All in the Region.

Through SAGAR, India works to strengthen economic and security ties with its maritime neighbours and to build up their marine security capacities. This includes sharing intelligence, conducting coastal surveillance and cooperating on training. India also aims to keep the Indian Ocean region inclusive, collaborative and bound by international law.

Why it still matters

The story in these notes is not frozen history. It keeps moving, and two recent developments show how.

First, the India-China border. After the deadly 2020 clash in eastern Ladakh, the two friction points of Depsang and Demchok stayed tense for more than four years. In October 2024 India and China finally reached an agreement to resume patrolling at both points, the last big flashpoints from the standoff. By late 2025 the thaw had gone further: direct passenger flights between the two countries restarted in October 2025 after a five year freeze, and both sides agreed to reopen border trade markets and to advance talks on demarcating the boundary. The rivalry has not disappeared, but the open lines of communication that this topic keeps stressing are being tested in real time.

Second, SAGAR has grown into MAHASAGAR. In March 2025, on a visit to Mauritius, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced MAHASAGAR: Mutual and Holistic Advancement for Security and Growth Across Regions. If SAGAR was about the Indian Ocean neighbourhood, MAHASAGAR widens the vision to the entire Global South, adding trade, technology sharing and concessional loans to the older focus on maritime security. It is India's cooperative answer to China's growing footprint at sea, and a direct sequel to the coastal waters section above.

These are exactly the kinds of live debates the Learnacy Hub connects back to your syllabus. For more standardised study notes across subjects, browse the full resources library.

Conclusion

Geopolitics is dynamic, not static. It reflects the global balance of power that grows out of the interaction between geography, technology and economic progress. Technology and economic advancement can change, but not erase, the strategic importance of a given location.

Geopolitics is not determinism. It rests on the idea that geography sets the limits and the opportunities of international politics: states can seize their geographical advantages or fall victim to their circumstances. One aim of grand strategy is to make the most of one's own geography while using an adversary's geographical weaknesses.

Sources

1. https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/12/negotiating-the-india-china-standoff-2020-2024
2. https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/27/asia/india-china-direct-flights-resume-intl-hnk
3. https://www.ussc.edu.au/mahasagar-indias-global-maritime-vision-explained-and-where-does-australia-fit

Key takeaways

• Foreign policy is a country's set of deliberate choices about how to deal with the rest of the world, shaped by national interests, geography, and global realities.
• India faces difficult relationships with China and Pakistan, particularly over border disputes and the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor passing through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
• The Gujral Doctrine guides India's relations with neighboring South Asian countries, emphasizing goodwill, non-reciprocity, non-interference, territorial respect, and peaceful dispute resolution.
• India's SAGAR vision (2015) aims to keep Indian Ocean waters peaceful while strengthening economic and security ties with maritime neighbors through cooperation and capacity building.
• Recent developments include the October 2024 India-China border agreement resuming patrolling at Depsang and Demchok, and direct passenger flights restarting in October 2025.

Test yourself

What is geopolitics?

Geopolitics is the study of how geography, that is location, borders, seas and resources, shapes the politics between nations.

Why has India been critical of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor?

India has been strongly critical of the CPEC because it passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, a territory disputed between India and Pakistan.

What are the five principles of the Gujral Doctrine?

The five principles are: India does not ask for reciprocity with neighbors; no South Asian country should allow its territory to be used against another country's interests; no country should interfere in internal affairs; all countries must respect territorial integrity and sovereignty; all disputes should be settled through peaceful bilateral negotiations.