Study of Continents: Europe, Africa, Australia and Antarctica | ICSE Class 7 Geography Notes

This note covers the location, boundaries, countries, capitals and major physical features of Europe, Africa and Australia; tourism in Switzerland, cocoa cultivation in Ghana and sheep rearing in Australia; and Antarctica’s location, climate, research settlements and environment.

How do we locate and compare the four continents?

A continent is a large continuous expanse of land. The widely used seven-continent grouping distinguishes Europe, Africa, Australia and Antarctica from Asia, North America and South America. Europe and Asia share a landmass called Eurasia, although they are generally considered separate continents.

An ocean is one of Earth’s largest water bodies. The oceans are connected: their named boundaries are conventions rather than barriers preventing seawater from moving between them. Location becomes easier to understand when a continent is considered alongside its surrounding oceans.

What do the reference lines mean?

The Equator is an imaginary circle halfway between the poles. It divides Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. A hemisphere is half of Earth. The Prime Meridian is the reference line for measuring longitude, or angular distance east or west. It and the opposite meridian divide Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

Latitude measures angular distance north or south of the Equator; longitude measures angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian. The symbol ° means degrees, a unit of angle. N, S, E and W mean north, south, east and west.

Europe lies north of the Equator. Africa extends across it. Australia lies south of it, while Antarctica surrounds the South Pole. Climate means the usual pattern of weather over a long period. These contrasting positions help explain why the four continents cannot be assigned the same climatic conditions.

The map labels all seven continents and five oceans. Europe appears north of Africa, Australia lies between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and the Southern Ocean lies around Antarctica. The map is marked not to scale.

See Fig. 2.3 in your NCERT textbook

Where is Europe, and which countries should we locate?

Europe forms the western part of the Eurasian landmass. It is entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and lies on both sides of the Prime Meridian. Most of its area is east of that reference line. It has a long, irregular coastline.

What surrounds Europe?

The Arctic Ocean lies to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The Mediterranean Sea lies to the south, between Europe and Africa. On the east, Europe adjoins Asia rather than being separated from it by an ocean.

The Ural Mountains and Ural River, Caspian Sea, Caucasus region and Black Sea help trace the conventional Europe-Asia division. A boundary marks a limit between areas; a continental boundary need not be a coastline or the border of a single country.

How do political and physical maps differ?

A political map shows countries and their boundaries. A capital is the city serving as the main seat of a country’s government. A physical map shows natural features such as mountains, plains and rivers. Use both kinds to relate countries to their surroundings.

These are selected country-capital pairs for map practice. Mark each country first, then its capital. For Switzerland, remember Bern’s role as the federal city; it serves as the country’s capital.

Which major physical features shape Europe?

Relief means the variations in height and shape of the land. Europe includes uplands, broad plains and high mountain ranges. A mountain range is a connected group or chain of mountains. These different landforms create different possibilities for transport, farming and tourism.

Where are the mountains and plains?

The Alps form an important mountain range in Europe. Mont Blanc is their highest mountain. Switzerland includes part of the Alps, making the range important to its landscape and tourism. A valley is lower land between hills or mountains, often containing a river.

The Scandinavian Mountains lie in northern Europe. The Pyrenees lie between Spain and France, while the Apennines extend through Italy. The Ural Mountains are important when locating the conventional eastern boundary of Europe. Identify each range by its position before memorising its name.

The North European Plain stretches across a broad part of northern and eastern Europe. A plain is extensive flat or gently undulating land. Such land contrasts with the steep slopes and narrow valleys of high mountain regions.

Why do rivers and coastlines matter?

The Rhine and Danube are major European rivers. The Rhine reaches the North Sea, while the Danube reaches the Black Sea. Follow a river as a continuous line on a map; avoid confusing its course with a country’s boundary.

A peninsula is land surrounded by water on three sides. Europe’s Iberian, Italian and Balkan peninsulas project towards southern seas. Mountains, rivers, plains and peninsulas should be labelled with their feature type so that a name alone does not become a disconnected fact.

Note: Europe and Asia are generally treated as separate continents, but they form one continuous landmass. There is no ocean running along the whole boundary between them.

Case study: How does geography support tourism in Switzerland?

Tourism involves people travelling away from their usual surroundings for activities such as recreation and sightseeing. Switzerland is a landlocked country, meaning that it has no sea coast. Its mountain scenery and lakes provide attractions despite this absence of coastal beaches.

What attracts visitors?

The Alps provide high mountains, valleys and snow-covered scenery. A glacier is a large mass of ice that moves slowly over land. Alpine glaciers and lakes add variety to the landscape, giving visitors opportunities to view different natural features within a mountain region.

Snow conditions support winter sports such as skiing. In warmer seasons, walking and hiking allow visitors to explore mountain paths and scenery. The attraction therefore changes with the season; tourism is not based on one activity at every time of year.

How do attractions become livelihoods?

Services are activities that meet people’s needs rather than producing a physical good. Visitors need transport, places to stay, meals and guidance. Hotels, restaurants, guides and transport services connect the natural attraction with opportunities for people to earn a living.

1. Mountain scenery and opportunities for recreation attract visitors to Switzerland.
2. Roads, railways and mountain transport help visitors reach places they wish to explore.
3. Visitors use accommodation, food, guiding and transport services during their stay.
4. Providing those services creates work and income, linking the mountain environment with people’s livelihoods.

Tourism is often an important source of income in mountain regions. An excessive inflow of visitors can put their fragile environment under pressure. It is often difficult to find the right balance between receiving visitors and protecting the landscape that attracts them.

The geographical connection is therefore more than “mountains attract tourists”. Scenery, seasonal conditions, access and services work together. Protecting the surroundings is part of maintaining the attraction on which tourism depends.

Where is Africa, and which countries and capitals help us study it?

Africa extends north and south of the Equator, which crosses its central part. It also lies on both sides of the Prime Meridian. Consequently, parts of Africa occupy each of Earth’s four directional hemispheres: northern, southern, eastern and western.

What are Africa’s boundaries?

The Mediterranean Sea lies to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Indian Ocean to the east. The Red Sea separates north-eastern Africa from the Arabian Peninsula. These water bodies provide the main reference points for tracing Africa’s outline.

The narrow Strait of Gibraltar lies between north-western Africa and south-western Europe. A strait is a narrow passage of water connecting larger water bodies. The Suez Canal is an artificial waterway linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea.

Which political divisions should we recognise?

Africa is a continent containing many countries, not a single country. The selected pairs below give reference points across different regions. Ghana is especially important for the cocoa case study, while Egypt helps locate the lower Nile and its surrounding lands.

An island is a landmass, smaller than a continent, surrounded by water. Locate Madagascar in the Indian Ocean and distinguish its island position from countries on the African mainland. A political outline and an ocean map together make these relationships clearer.

How do Africa’s physical features influence life?

Much of Africa consists of plateaus, broad areas of elevated land with comparatively level surfaces. The continent also contains mountain ranges, river valleys, lakes and deserts. Its physical variety is important: conditions in a desert differ greatly from those beside a well-watered river.

Which features belong on a physical map?

The Atlas Mountains lie in north-western Africa. The East African Plateau occupies part of the east. Mount Kilimanjaro, in eastern Africa, is an isolated mountain rather than part of a mountain range. Lake Victoria is a major lake in East Africa.

The Nile flows northwards to the Mediterranean Sea. The Congo drains central Africa towards the Atlantic Ocean. A river basin is the area drained by a river and the streams flowing into it. River basins must not be confused with political territories.

The Zambezi River in southern Africa has the Victoria Falls. The Sahara occupies a large part of North Africa, while the Kalahari and Namib lie in southern Africa. A desert is a large dry region receiving very little precipitation, meaning water falling from the atmosphere as rain or snow.

What does the Sahara show about dry environments?

The Sahara contains sand, gravel plains and elevated rocky surfaces. It is not simply an uninterrupted sea of sand. Its climate is scorching hot and very dry, with a short rainy season. Day and night conditions can differ sharply.

In the table, sq. km means square kilometres, a measure of area; m means metres, a measure of length or height; and °C means degrees Celsius, a unit of temperature. Keep the qualifying words when using these figures.

An oasis is a fertile place in a desert where water is available. People may settle around such water bodies and grow crops. The Nile Valley in Egypt also supports settled populations and farming because water is available. Africa’s geography creates contrasting opportunities for settlement.

Case study: Why is cocoa cultivated in Ghana?

Ghana is a West African country on the Gulf of Guinea, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. Accra is its capital. Cocoa cultivation connects the country’s warm, moist growing areas with farming, processing and trade. Cocoa beans are used to make cocoa products and chocolate.

What conditions does the crop need?

Cocoa is a tropical tree crop. Tropical describes the warm belt around the Equator. It grows well with warmth, plentiful moisture and suitable well-drained soil. Drainage is the removal of excess water from soil, helping prevent water from remaining around roots.

Southern Ghana’s moist forest zone provides suitable conditions for cocoa cultivation. Young cocoa plants benefit from shade. Conditions favourable to this tree crop do not occur uniformly across every part of Ghana, and Ghana’s climate should not be represented as identical to the Sahara’s.

How are cocoa beans prepared for sale?

Cocoa pods contain beans surrounded by pulp. Harvesting means gathering a crop when it is ready. After harvesting, farmers open the pods and remove the beans. Preparing the beans properly is important because the crop is grown for sale and later processing.

1. Ripe cocoa pods are harvested from the trees.
2. The pods are opened and the beans with their surrounding pulp are removed.
3. The beans are fermented, a controlled process involving microorganisms, or microscopic living things, that changes the pulp and helps develop flavour.
4. The fermented beans are dried, reducing their moisture before storage and sale.
5. The dried beans are sent onwards for processing into cocoa products.

Commercial farming produces crops or livestock for sale in markets. Cocoa farming illustrates how natural conditions support a crop, but labour, preparation and transport are also necessary. Suitable rainfall alone does not harvest, prepare or move beans to buyers.

The geographical explanation should connect place, crop and activity: moist tropical conditions support cocoa trees; people cultivate and harvest them; fermentation and drying prepare the beans for sale. Each link describes a different part of the same farming system.

Where is Australia, and how is its political geography different?

Australia is the smallest continent in the commonly used seven-continent grouping. It lies entirely south of the Equator and east of the Prime Meridian. Its position therefore places it in both the Southern and Eastern Hemispheres.

Which waters surround Australia?

The Indian Ocean lies to the west and the Pacific Ocean to the east. The Timor and Arafura Seas lie to the north, while the Coral Sea lies off the north-east. The Tasman Sea lies to the south-east, between Australia and New Zealand.

Tasmania is an island south of the Australian mainland, separated from it by Bass Strait. It is part of the country of Australia. When describing location, distinguish the mainland from associated islands rather than treating every nearby island as a separate country.

What is the country’s capital?

The country of Australia has Canberra as its capital. Sydney and Melbourne are major cities, but neither is the national capital. Country, capital and continent are different geographical ideas even when the country and continent share a name.

Oceania is a broader regional grouping that includes Australia, New Zealand and Pacific islands. New Zealand is not part of the country of Australia. When using a regional map, read its title carefully so that “Australia” and “Oceania” are not treated as interchangeable labels.

This distinction is particularly useful in political map work. First identify the continent or region being shown, then identify the country, and finally locate its capital. The same map may show neighbouring countries without making them parts of one country.

What are Australia’s major physical divisions?

Australia can be studied through three broad physical divisions: the Western Plateau, the Central Lowlands and the Eastern Highlands. These names describe their relative positions and relief. Together they provide a framework for locating more specific mountains, rivers and dry regions.

How do the divisions compare?

The Great Sandy Desert and Great Victoria Desert are important dry regions in western and central Australia. They show why the continent cannot be described as uniformly well watered. Arid means very dry, and semi-arid describes land receiving limited rainfall, though more than an arid region.

The Murray and Darling form an important river system in south-eastern Australia. A tributary is a river or stream joining a larger river. Trace the connected rivers before labelling the wider Murray-Darling Basin, the land area drained by this river system.

Why does the physical pattern matter?

Rainfall and water availability affect both crop farming and the rearing of animals. Dry regions need careful attention to the supply of water and feed. The presence of large open areas does not by itself guarantee that a farm can support many animals.

For map practice, place the broad divisions first: plateau in the west, lowlands in the centre and highlands in the east. Then add deserts and the river system. This creates an organised physical picture rather than a collection of unrelated place names.

Case study: How is sheep rearing carried out in Australia?

Sheep rearing means breeding, feeding and caring for sheep. It is a form of pastoral farming, farming based on raising grazing animals. Australia’s sheep industry links suitable grazing land with wool and meat production for markets.

What supports sheep farming?

Pasture is land with grasses or other plants suitable for grazing. Large areas of grassland and suitable drier farming country support sheep. Sheep still need drinking water and adequate feed; the existence of deserts does not mean that animals can be raised without these essentials.

Large Australian sheep farms are often called stations. Fences divide grazing land into paddocks, which are enclosed sections used to manage animals. Water supplies, handling facilities and transport help turn available land into an organised commercial farming operation.

The Merino is an important sheep breed associated with fine wool. Wool is the fibre obtained from a sheep’s fleece, its coat. Sheep farming may produce wool and meat, but these products should be distinguished from the later manufacture of cloth or clothing.

What work happens on a sheep farm?

1. Farmers manage grazing areas and provide water and feed for the flock.
2. They care for the animals and attend to their health and breeding.
3. Shearers remove the fleece by shearing, the cutting of wool from the sheep.
4. The wool is sorted, packed and transported for sale and later processing.

Drought is a prolonged period of unusually low rainfall. It can reduce the water and pasture available to sheep. This shows that commercial farming depends on both environmental conditions and management; a large farm remains vulnerable when feed and water become scarce.

Compare this case with Ghana. Cocoa farming centres on cultivating a tree crop and preparing its beans. Australian sheep rearing centres on managing animals and pasture. Both require labour, suitable natural conditions and links to markets, but their daily operations differ.

Why is Antarctica described as an uninhabited continent?

Antarctica surrounds the South Pole and lies in the Southern Hemisphere. The Southern Ocean surrounds it. Unlike the Arctic, which is an ocean region around the North Pole, Antarctica is a continent with land beneath its extensive cover of ice.

What is its climate like?

Climate means the usual pattern of weather over a long period. Antarctica has a very cold climate and a harsh environment. An ice sheet is a vast continuous mass of ice covering a large area of land. Ice dominates much of the continent’s surface.

Strong winds, severe cold and very limited precipitation make ordinary settlement difficult. Some experts also describe Antarctica as a desert. This classification concerns dryness, not heat: a desert need not have the hot daytime conditions associated with the Sahara.

Long periods of winter darkness and summer daylight occur in the polar region. Food production, transport and shelter face severe difficulties. The combination of climate, ice and distance from other inhabited continents helps explain the absence of a permanent resident population.

Does “human void zone” mean nobody goes there?

Human void zone here means a region without ordinary permanent human settlement. Antarctica has no permanent native population, but scientists and support staff live temporarily at research stations. “Uninhabited” must not be expanded into the inaccurate claim that no human beings are ever present.

A research station is a base equipped for scientific work and the people carrying it out. India established its first Antarctic scientific base, Dakshin Gangotri, in 1983. Antarctic research includes studying changes in climate and the environment.

Why is its environment important?

Studying ice sheets helps scientists investigate environmental change. Melting land ice can contribute to rising sea level, the average height of the ocean surface. Ice sheets, surrounding seas and climate therefore need to be considered together rather than as isolated features.

Note: Antarctica’s lack of permanent native settlement does not mean it lacks temporary research residents. A scientific station is different from an ordinary town with a settled population.

How should we combine map work and comparisons?

Start with relative location, meaning where a place lies in relation to other places. Europe is north of Africa; Australia lies east of the Indian Ocean; Antarctica lies around the South Pole. These relationships provide a framework for more detailed labels.

How can we organise a physical map?

The world map uses separate colours for plateaus, river plains and mountain ranges. It marks the Ural Mountains, Atlas Mountains, East African Plateau and Nile plain. Its legend explains the colours, and it is marked not to scale.

See Fig. 3.8 in your NCERT textbook

A legend is the key explaining a map’s symbols or colours. Read it before deciding whether a shaded area represents a mountain, plateau or plain. A label’s position and the map’s key together tell you what kind of feature you are examining.

What should a comparison explain?

Build explanations by connecting a condition with an activity. A mountain alone does not provide a hotel service, and rainfall alone does not prepare cocoa beans. People use labour, knowledge and transport to make use of geographical opportunities while responding to environmental limits.

Glossary

• Continent — A large continuous expanse of land, distinguished within the commonly used geographical division of Earth.
• Hemisphere — Half of Earth, described as northern, southern, eastern or western using geographical reference lines.
• Latitude — Angular distance north or south of the Equator, measured in degrees.
• Longitude — Angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, measured in degrees.
• Relief — The variations in height and shape of the land across an area.
• Plateau — A broad area of elevated land with a comparatively level surface.
• River basin — The area drained by a river and the streams flowing into it.
• Landlocked — Describes a country surrounded by land, with no coast on a sea or ocean.
• Glacier — A large mass of ice that moves slowly over the land.
• Commercial farming — Farming in which crops are grown or animals reared for sale in markets.
• Pastoral farming — Farming based on raising grazing animals, including sheep kept for wool or meat.
• Shearing — The cutting of wool from a sheep to remove its fleece.
• Oasis — A fertile place within a desert where available water supports vegetation and may support settlement.
• Ice sheet — A vast continuous mass of ice covering a large area of land.
• Human void zone — A region without ordinary permanent human settlement, although temporary scientific residents may be present.

Common errors and misconceptions

• Misconception: An ocean separates Europe from Asia. Correct: Europe and Asia form the continuous Eurasian landmass, although they are generally treated as separate continents.
• Misconception: Africa lies entirely north of the Equator. Correct: The Equator crosses Africa, so the continent extends into both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
• Misconception: Africa is entirely hot desert. Correct: Africa includes plateaus, mountains, river valleys and moist regions as well as deserts; southern Ghana supports cocoa cultivation.
• Misconception: Every part of the Sahara is flat sand. Correct: The Sahara also contains gravel plains and elevated rocky surfaces.
• Misconception: Sydney is Australia’s capital, and New Zealand is part of Australia. Correct: Canberra is Australia’s capital; New Zealand is a separate country whose capital is Wellington.
• Misconception: Sheep can be reared without water because Australia has dry regions. Correct: Sheep need adequate feed and drinking water; drought can reduce both pasture and water supplies.
• Misconception: “Uninhabited Antarctica” means that nobody ever stays there. Correct: It has no permanent native population, but scientists and support staff stay temporarily at research stations.

Exam-style questions with model answers

Q1. Europe and Asia form one continuous landmass called Eurasia, although they are generally considered separate continents. State two conclusions about their relationship. [2 marks]

1. Europe and Asia are physically connected within the single continuous landmass called Eurasia.
2. They are generally considered separate continents despite this physical connection, so continental grouping is not determined by an ocean barrier alone.

Q2. Use these facts to explain three ways geography supports Swiss tourism: Switzerland contains Alpine mountains and lakes; snow supports skiing; warmer seasons allow hiking; visitors use transport, accommodation, food and guiding services. Give three distinct points. [3 marks]

1. Alpine mountains and lakes provide scenery that visitors can travel to see, connecting the natural landscape with tourism.
2. Seasonal conditions support different activities: snow allows skiing, while warmer conditions allow hiking, so the attraction changes through the year.
3. Visitors require transport, accommodation, food and guiding services. Providing these services connects the attraction of the landscape with work and income for people.

Q3. The Sahara covers around 8.54 million sq. km; some rocky surfaces may be more than 2500 m high at some places; daytime temperatures may soar as high as 50°C. Explain what each observation shows, preserving every qualification. Here sq. km means square kilometres, m means metres and °C means degrees Celsius. [3 marks]

1. The area is around 8.54 million sq. km. “Around” makes this an approximate measure of the Sahara’s extent rather than an exact boundary measurement.
2. Rocky surfaces may be more than 2500 m high at some places. This shows that the desert includes elevated rocky land rather than consisting entirely of flat sand.
3. Daytime temperatures may soar as high as 50°C. This describes possible extreme daytime heat rather than a temperature that applies everywhere at all times.

Q4. Ghana’s southern cocoa-growing areas are warm and moist, with suitable well-drained soil. Ripe pods are harvested, beans removed, fermented and dried before sale. Using these facts, explain cocoa cultivation and preparation in four points. Fermentation is controlled change involving microorganisms. [4 marks]

1. Warm, moist conditions and suitable well-drained soil support cocoa cultivation in the growing areas of southern Ghana.
2. Ripe pods are harvested and opened so that their beans can be removed for preparation.
3. The removed beans undergo fermentation, the controlled process involving microorganisms, as part of preparing the crop.
4. The fermented beans are dried before sale. Cultivation and preparation therefore involve both suitable natural conditions and a sequence of human activities.

Q5. An Australian sheep station uses pasture, drinking water, fenced paddocks, animal care, shearing, wool sorting and transport to market. Drought is a prolonged period of unusually low rainfall; it can reduce pasture and water supplies. Explain this farming system in five points, including the drought risk. A station is a large farm, paddocks are enclosed grazing areas and shearing means cutting wool from sheep. [5 marks]

1. Pasture supplies grazing for the sheep, while drinking water meets another essential need. Both are necessary resources within the sheep-farming system.
2. Fenced paddocks divide the grazing land into enclosed areas. Together with animal care, they help farmers organise and manage the flock.
3. Shearing removes the wool from the sheep. This provides a farm product that can then be sorted and prepared for sale to buyers.
4. Sorting wool and transporting it to market connect farm production with buyers. These operations form part of producing for commercial sale.
5. Drought is a prolonged period of unusually low rainfall; it can reduce both pasture and water supplies. The farm therefore faces a risk to the supplies on which its animals depend.

Q6. Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, is surrounded by the Southern Ocean, has severe cold and extensive land ice, and lacks a permanent native population. Scientists and support staff stay temporarily at research stations. Using these facts, describe its location, environment and human presence in five points. [5 marks]

1. Antarctica surrounds the South Pole. This places the continent in the southern polar region and provides a clear reference point for locating it.
2. The Southern Ocean surrounds Antarctica. Its ocean boundary should be distinguished from the land of the continent itself.
3. Severe cold and extensive land ice characterise the environment. These conditions help explain why ordinary permanent settlement is difficult.
4. Antarctica lacks a permanent native population. The description “uninhabited continent” refers to this absence of ordinary permanent settlement.
5. Scientists and support staff nevertheless stay temporarily at research stations. Their presence means that “uninhabited” cannot be interpreted as an absolute absence of all human beings.

Q7. Use this key: Ghana is a West African country with capital Accra; Australia has capital Canberra; New Zealand is a separate country with capital Wellington. Give the three country-capital pairs and explain the Australia-New Zealand distinction. [4 marks]

1. Ghana’s capital is Accra. Ghana is the West African country identified in the key, so Accra must be paired with Ghana.
2. Australia’s capital is Canberra. The capital should be recorded alongside the country named Australia.
3. New Zealand’s capital is Wellington. It must be paired with New Zealand, not with Australia.
4. Australia and New Zealand are separate countries. Their presence on a regional map does not make New Zealand part of Australia.

Key takeaways

• Europe and Asia share the Eurasian landmass, although they are generally treated as separate continents in the seven-continent grouping.
• Europe’s mountains, plains, rivers and peninsulas form a varied physical setting; Switzerland illustrates the connection between mountain scenery and tourism.
• Africa extends across the Equator and Prime Meridian, with environments ranging from deserts to moist cocoa-growing areas.
• Ghana’s cocoa farming links suitable growing conditions with harvesting, fermentation, drying and the sale of prepared beans.
• Australia lies in the Southern and Eastern Hemispheres; Canberra is its capital, while New Zealand is a separate country.
• Australian sheep rearing depends on pasture, water, animal care and markets; drought can reduce essential feed and water supplies.
• Antarctica surrounds the South Pole and has extensive ice, severe cold and temporary research residents rather than a permanent native population.
• Use physical maps for landforms and political maps for countries and capitals, reading the legend before interpreting colours or symbols.

Test yourself

What is Eurasia?

Eurasia is the continuous landmass formed by Europe and Asia, which are generally treated as separate continents.

Which oceans lie north and west of Europe?

The Arctic Ocean lies north of Europe, while the Atlantic Ocean lies to its west.

Why is Africa present in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres?

The Equator crosses Africa, leaving parts of the continent north of it and other parts south of it.

How does an oasis support settlement?

Available water supports vegetation and crop growing, so people may settle around the water body in the desert.

What happens to cocoa beans after they are removed from the pods?

The beans are fermented and then dried before being sent onwards for sale and processing.

What are Australia’s three broad physical divisions?

They are the Western Plateau, Central Lowlands and Eastern Highlands, arranged broadly from west to east.

Why can drought harm sheep farming?

Drought can reduce pasture and drinking water, limiting two essential resources needed to support the flock.

How can Antarctica be uninhabited yet have research stations?

It has no permanent native population, but scientists and support staff stay temporarily at research stations.